Home School Researcher Volume 40, No. 2, 2026
(Volume 40 was originally scheduled to be published in 2024.)
Fredrick Mwanyumba Tweni
Researcher, Department of Education Planning and Management, School of Education, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya, mwanyumba13@gmail.com
Lydia Wamocha
Professor, Department of Education Planning and Management, School of Education, Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya, lwamocha@mmust.ac.ke
Pamela Buhere
Chairperson, Department of Education Planning and Management, School of Education; Masinde Muliro University of Science and Technology, Kakamega, Kenya, pbuhere@mmust.ac.ke
Abstract
The Competency based curriculum (CBC), that Kenya implemented in 2019 puts focus on what learners can do rather than what they know. However, since its launch, it has faced frequent implementation challenges due to low parental engagement and involvement. This is in sharp contrast with the homeschooling model, which has continued to demonstrate comprehensive parental involvement in children’s learning. Therefore, to address the issue of parental involvement in CBC implementation, a qualitative study anchored in constructivism was used to compare the views of eight (8) CBC parents and (6) homeschooling parents using focus group discussions. The comparison focused on how CBC parents could learn from homeschooling parents to identify and address children’s problem areas, individuality, creativity, the learning environment and style diversity. A thematic analysis facilitated by the NVivo 11.0 software revealed that CBC parents were largely unaware of their roles in the curriculum’s implementation. In comparison, homeschooling parents exhibited high levels of involvement and flexibility in their children’s learning. The study suggests that the flexible and high involvement of homeschooling parents, provides vital lessons for devising strategies to enhance CBC parents’ engagement. Parental involvement in CBC can be improved by addressing barriers like time constraints, negative attitude, lack of awareness, and implementing targeted strategies.
Keywords: Competency Based Curriculum, CBC Implementation, homeschooling model, parental role, parental involvement.
Benjamin Bloom’s theory of mastery learning (Bloom, 1968) carried the impetus for Competency-Based Curriculum (CBC) because it suggested that if learners have enough time and are given the right instruction, all of them can attain mastery of content. Competency based education (CBC), also known as proficiency-based education, is an emerging educational paradigm shift that is sweeping across the world, following advances in digital technology. CBC seeks to shift education from relying on the grading system and annual curriculum schedules to learners’ mastery of the skill taught (Wambui, 2024). Several benefits are associated with CBC, including customizing the support accorded to each learner, letting individual learners progress at their own pace, and prompting learners to move to another skill only after acquiring competence in the previous one (Casey, 2018; Levine & Patrick, 2019; Surr & Redding, 2017).
However, since its first definition in the late 1960s, mastery learning and later the competence-based approaches have also met challenges for lack of consistency in implementation, low reliability of large-scale assessments, and criticism for over-emphasis on individual progress at the expense of social and emotional aspects of learning. Despite these limitations, research shows that CBC can be effective if teachers are given sufficient training and continuous assessment practices are implemented successfully (Guskey, 2010; Sturgis & Casey, 2018).
Since gaining independence in 1963, Kenya has embarked on reforming its education, having recognized that it inherited an education system that didn’t have an African orientation. Therefore, education reforms have targeted Africanizing education to have a national appeal, aligning educational policies to revised national education objectives, increasing opportunities for higher education through the establishment of a second national university, changing the educational curriculum to suit Kenyans’ needs, and aiming towards an integrated quality education and training (GOK, 1964; 1976; 1988; Muricho & Chang’ach, 2013). These progressive reforms slowly led to the introduction of the CBC in 2017, with Kenya’s adaptation to the global movement of Competency Based Curriculum (CBC), seeking to make learning relevant, practical and learner centered.
The 8-4-4 system of education, which was launched in January 1985 and designed to provide eight years of primary education, four years of secondary, and four years of university education, with emphasis on Mathematics, English, and Vocational subjects, has served the country well for slightly over three decades. However, its orientation towards examinations and mean grading has been heavily criticized among stakeholders (Nyaboke et al., 2021). Hence, in line with the global competency-based learning trend, and the age-old dream of Africanizing education to reflect Kenya’s culture and local realities, Kenya has remained on the education reforms path, adopting the CBC to ensure holistic learning that can enable graduates cope with the 21st Century challenges.
Under the 8-4-4 system students memorized information to pass examinations in order to receive certificates for one to get a job. On the contrary, CBC emphasizes value creation among students. Moreover, while 8-4-4 was mainly theoretical, CBC stresses a practical orientation towards science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Assessment under CBC is continuous, and students are evaluated through projects, presentations, and real-life problem-solving approach as opposed to one final examination (Wambui, 2024). This aims to deviate learners from job seekers to creators, innovators, and owners of businesses. To achieve this, parents are expected to help students to carry out projects and assignments while at home, providing the required materials and supervising activities.
In the broader context of modernizing learning, in line with the global trends, and Africanizing learning through integrating indigenous knowledge, the government of Kenya sought to exploit the CBC potential to hone local values, and community-based skills in the curriculum to make learning relevant to the socio-cultural context of Kenya (Sifuna, 1990; Ongong’a, 2018; Wanjohi, 2020). Critical to the success of the CBC paradigm shift is the contribution of parents, who serve as primary influencers in children’s learning trajectory.
Literature Review
The Role of Parents in CBC and Africanizing Education
Research underscores the important role that parents play in children’s learning, including offering academic support, giving motivational and emotional support, reinforcing responsibility and discipline, and bridging the homeschool gap (Deysolong, 2023). In the Kenyan context, parental involvement is also a key avenue for advancing the Africanization of education as parents bring indigenous values, cultural norms, and knowledge of communities that is in tandem with the emphasis of the CBC on contextual and value-based learning (Sifuna, 1990; Ongong’a, 2018). Hence learners explore indigenous knowledge, including being taught indigenous languages, proverbs about wealth, land, and trade.
Homeschooling as a Model for High Parental Engagement
One form of schooling system that witnesses extreme parental involvement is homeschooling, viewed as a holistic perspective and pedagogical practice (Neuman & Guterman, 2017). This system entails educating children from home instead of doing so in a formal public or private school setting. Many comparative studies have shown relatively better academic and social outcomes for homeschooled children compared with conventionally schooled children (Feliciano et al., 2018; Mwanyumba et al., 2022; Ray, 2021; Salvo, 2018). Although homeschooling is not an established system of education in Kenya, it is a useful comparative lens for this study, because it is a good example of what high parental involvement can accomplish. By studying the practices of homeschooling parents, this research aims at gaining insights on how similar forms of engagement can enhance parental participation in the framework of the CBC (Wachira & Ndirangu, 2020; Oduor, 2019).
Challenges in Parental Involvement under CBC
Despite the central role that parents can play in children’s education, research has demonstrated the poor involvement by parents in children’s education in the CBC system in Kenya (Ajuoga & Keta, 2021; Amunga et al., 2020; Atikiye, 2021; Mutea, 2020; Mwararu et al., 2020; Omaribe, 2022). Among the reasons highlighted by these scholars for the non-involvement of parents in CBC are, unwillingness, lack of sensitization on CBC, lack of cooperation from teachers, insufficient time, and negative attitude towards CBC.
In Kenya, the participation of parents in the education process has largely been limited to financial contribution, attendance at parent-teacher meetings, and disciplinary support; and not active participation in learning activities (Nyambura, 2019; Wanjohi, 2021). However, with the advent of the CBC model, parents have to play a greater role in supporting children learning through hands-on experience, practical skills development, and ongoing evaluation. In this context, the study of the practices of homeschooling parents, who are heavily involved in the delivery of the curriculum and in the formation of skills, provides important insights into how mainstream parents might be better incorporated into the delivery of CBC.
Research Rationale and Focus
This study, critically examines and compares the involvement of parents of homeschooling children with those of children pursuing the CBC system in formal schools, by exploring key educational practices such as identifying children’s problem areas, catering for learning style diversity and individual differences, providing an interesting and challenging learning environment, and promoting creativity among children. This comparison is important because the CBC model in Kenya relies heavily on active parental engagement to foster learner competencies outside the classroom, and many parents are confused about their role in this new model. By studying homeschooling parents, who are an extreme example of parental involvement, the study aims to identify practices that could be used to inform and strengthen the implementation of CBC. Although homeschooling families are not required to adhere to the CBC, they live in the same national education context and are indirectly shaped by the philosophy of learner-centered, skill-based education (Oduor, 2019; Wachira & Ndirangu, 2020). The study therefore seeks to elucidate the ways that the lessons derived from homeschooling parents might enlighten ways for effective parental participation under the CBC framework.
Materials and Methods
Research Design
This study employed the phenomenological approach, anchored in the qualitative research design, seeking to understand parental experiences in relation to the phenomenon of educational mode choice. As a constructivist research approach, phenomenology allowed the researchers to capture the wealth and depth of parents’ experiences, opinions, and behavior on homeschooling children or enrolling them in formal CBC schools. According to Allen (2022), constructivism holds the view that learning is a construction of meaning through experience. Moreover, the use of a qualitative design, often regarded as a subjective approach (Lim, 2024), enabled the scoping of parents’ views on their expected roles in children’s learning, regardless of the learning mode and nature of the curriculum.
Participants and Sampling
The two distinct sets of parents used in this research study were identified using the purposive sampling and snowball techniques. Purposive sampling is an intentional, non-probability sampling approach that allowed the researchers to employ specific criteria consistent with the study’s objectives to select participants. In contrast, the snowball technique enabled the participants to help identify other potential parents.
Selection Criteria and Participant Alignment
Participants were selected based on two primary criteria. The first criterion was that of residency. The participating parent was required to have been a resident of Kenya at the time of carrying out this research study. The second criterion is related to the education model. The participating parent was expected to have had a child or children pursuing either the formal CBC model or a structured homeschooling model.
For a meaningful comparison between the two sets of parents, some secondary selection criteria were also considered. First, recruitment of participants sought to achieve demographic alignment beyond just residency. Specifically, participants were recruited from Nairobi City County, a single large urban center in Kenya, to minimize confounding variables related to stark regional differences in resource availability and cultural contexts. Additionally, parents in the selection category were drawn from within middle-to-upper-middle socio-economic strata to eliminate and control for parental employment status and economic stability covariates. This ensured that educational choice would remain a deliberate decision rather than a consequence of financial constraints.
Recruitment and Group Composition
In order to remain objective in the recruitment of participants, a combination of methods was used, including making initial contacts with formal school representatives and community leaders, as well as, initiating the snowball sampling approach. In the case of the parents with homeschooling children, contact was first established with known homeschooling parent networks in Nairobi City County. For the formal CBC school group, contact was made with parent-teacher associations (PTAs) in the respective formal CBC schools. The two sets of parents were subsequently constituted as displayed in Table 1.
Table 1
Study Sample
| Groups of Participants | Participants | Total | ||
| Male parents | Female parents | |||
| Homeschooling Formal CBC School | 2 | 4 | 6 | |
| 3 | 5 | 8 | ||
| Total | 5 | 9 | 14 | |
In total, 14 parents participated in the study. This structure facilitated a direct comparison of parental perceptions regarding the two distinct educational models while controlling for critical demographic variables.
Data Collection
Two focus group discussions (FGDs) were organized to gather data directly from the participating parents. The first FGD targeted parents with homeschooling children and sought to gather the parents’ perspectives and experiences on the topical issue of their roles in homeschooling their children. In contrast, the second FGD targeted parents with children in formal CBC schools, seeking similar information. The FGDs were moderated by the principal researcher, who first sought the parents’ informed consent to audio-record the discussions.
Research Instrument and Trustworthiness
The primary data collection tool was a Focused Group Discussion (FGD) Guide. This FGD guide focused on four key areas, including common learner needs and challenges, catering for individual differences among learners, state of learning environment, and provision for creativity and practical orientation. Several prompts and probes were used to stimulate discussions, seeking to highlight parents lived experiences and challenges.
The guide was customized on the outcome of a thorough review of literature of educational reforms and parental participation. To ensure trustworthiness and rigor, the instrument underwent a vital field-testing process. The guide was pilot-tested with three parents who met the criteria but were excluded from the final study sample. This pilot confirmed the clarity of the prompts, the flow of the discussion, and the instrument’s effectiveness in generating rich, relevant data. Following the outcome of the pilot study, some alterations were made to the FGD guide to strengthen its overall credibility.
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed following a rigorous process of thematic analysis, in pursuance of guidelines suggested by Braun and Clarke (2006) regarding the six steps undertaken in such analysis. This analysis process facilitated by the NVivo 11.0 software, enabled the identification of codes and nodes that culminated in required themes.
The audio-recorded discussions were first transcribed verbatim into English. A small group (10%) of the FGDs were validated by an independent researcher through listening to the audio recording while reading the transcribed text, checking for inconsistencies, and verifying the formatting.
In the analysis, initial codes commonly known as nodes were first generated. This was achieved through thorough perusal and reading of the transcripts to establish the recurring narratives among parents towards the roles they are expected to play in their children’s learning, the challenges they face, and the strategies they employ to support their children learning both for those who school at home and those who attend the formal CBC schools. The nodes were then grouped into sub-themes based on their relatedness. These sub-themes subsequently generated themes revolving around general roles that parents play, and challenges they face in both the homeschooling and formal CBC models.
Results and Discussions
Identifying children’s problem areas
The first area of focus concerning parental involvement was the process of identifying children’s learning needs and ‘problem areas.’ FGD accounts revealed divergent reactions across three themes: homeschooling as a model that actively engages parents in identifying and addressing these issues; CBC as a model that theoretically requires engagement but practically yields minimal and passive involvement from parents; and the fundamental difference in educational belief systems held by parents pursuing the two models. The issue with this minimal engagement is that the CBC is designed with the expectation of high parental partnership to diagnose and remediate learning gaps, meaning that the passive involvement observed directly undermines the curriculum’s core competency development goals (Table 2).
Table 2
Coding Matrix for Identifying Problem Areas
| Theme (NVivo Parent Node Level 1) | Sub-theme (NVivo Parent Node Level 2) | Code/Node (NVivo Child Node) | Code Definition/Description |
| 1. Homeschooling: Model of Proactive, Deep Engagement | 1.1 Holistic/Value-Based Development | Holistic Education | Integrating moral learning, life skills, and character formation alongside academic instruction (constituting holistic education). |
| Personalized Values | Keen focus on personalized values acquisition and citizenship. | ||
| 1.2 Personalized & Responsive Learning | Immediate Identification of Gaps | Allows for close observation and immediate identification of learning challenges/gaps. | |
| Flexibility and Pacing | Allows for flexibility and customization of learning approaches (Pacing). | ||
| 2. CBC: Model of Minimal & Passive Engagement | 2.1 Passive Delegation of Responsibility | Teachers Bear Blame | Parents expect teachers to bear the primary blame for learning issues. |
| Not Co-educating | Parents do not perceive themselves as teaching or co-educating. | ||
| 2.2 Viewing Education as Solely School’s Domain | Parents as Outsiders | Parents assume the role of ‘outsiders’; education is viewed as the school’s responsibility. | |
| Financing Only Role | Parents’ role is seen as only financing the school (tuition/materials). | ||
| 3. Divergent Educational Philosophy and Role | 3.1 Fundamental Philosophies | HS Philosophy (Holistic) | Homeschooling: Education should be holistic, value-laden, and deeply personalized (Goal is well-rounded development). |
| CBC Philosophy (Exam-Focused) | CBC Parent Perception: Education is perceived as focused primarily on academic excellence and exam performance (This is the experienced reality contrasting the holistic ideal). | ||
| 3.2 View on Required Parental Role | HS Role (Active Co-educator) | Homeschooling: Parents believe they ought to be active co-educators (Voluntary primary role). | |
| CBC Role (Resistance to Co-educator) | CBC Parent Experience: Parents believe their role is limited to financing and administrative support (Resistance to mandated co-educator role). |
As displayed in Table 2 which shows the coding matrix, the FGD accounts yielded the divergent approaches that parents use to identify and redress the problem areas that children face when learning, with parents whose children attend homeschooling showing more interest in children’s problem areas and holistic development (Sub-theme 1.1) compared with the parents whose children attend the formal CBC schools. Participants are anonymized as Homeschool Parent 1 (HSP1), Competency-based Curriculum Parent 1 (CBCP1), etc.
HSP1: Holistic learning that focuses on imparting desired values has remained a major problem area in our children’s formal school learning. My desire and drive for schooling my children at home is to nourish their minds and souls… You see; by teaching them at home, I can fill this gap in values by imparting ethos such as integrity, persistence, tolerance, discipline, hard work, and compassion. (FGD 1)
HSP2: Molding children’s character is one area that our schools fail to achieve well. They mainly concentrate on academic outcomes. Schooling my children at home assures me that the methodology used allows the acquisition of knowledge alongside social and moral values. (FGD 1)
On the contrary, involvement among parents of children pursuing CBC formal schools to identify children’s problem areas was minimal (Theme 2). Most of them were against the idea of supporting their children with academic activities.
CBCP1: yeah, I know that my child has some learning difficulties. But I blame it on the teachers’ irresponsibility. Teachers should be paying more attention to these children’s problems. (FGD 2).
When further probed on why they can’t complement teachers’ efforts, a second parent asserted that,
CBCP2: My involvement is defined and exclusively relates to providing the required necessities such as paying fees, providing food, providing uniforms and attending meetings in school when called upon … .and not purporting to play the role of a teacher (FGD 2).
This confirms CBC parents’ perception that their role is limited to financing and administrative support, resisting the CBC’s mandated co-educator role. These FGD accounts show the different trajectories that parents take regarding identifying and addressing children’s learning problem areas, with homeschooling parents being keen on children’s problem areas as opposed to the parents of children in formal CBC schools who are the majority parents. This disparity aligns with literature showing that despite parents’ significant influence on social and academic success, the majority often lack concrete strategies for assisting children (Sahu et al., 2018). While the homeschooling examples emphasized holistic concerns like values and character molding (addressing gaps they perceive in the formal system), the overall contrast still highlights the proactive, hands-on diagnostic role that the CBC curriculum mandates but that mainstream parents are failing to provide, thereby negatively impacting a child’s overall learning.
Scholars acknowledge the presence of learning problems among children. For instance, Prior (2022) underscores the need to understand specific learning difficulties among children, noting that they have spelling, reading, and learning difficulties that require remedial approaches. Dominguez et al. (2010) had hitherto acknowledged that it was necessary to identify underactive behavior, including shyness among children, an exercise that could best be handled by parents. The focus of CBC on demonstrating knowledge application, value acquisition, and attitudinal change has the promise to inculcate creativity among children (Amunga et al., 2020). Yet parents’ negative attitude towards CBC has caused resistance to the system, obscuring the understanding that the teacher-parent nexus is central to successful implementation of this curriculum (Gedi & Kamau, 2023; Rodgers & Alice, 2023).
The FGD accounts confirm that homeschooling addresses holistic learning aimed at molding the child’s character and values. This perspective is crucial because concerns have been raised about having many skilled people who are nonetheless not holistically oriented (Oduor, 2019). Therefore, by analyzing these accounts, parents of children undertaking CBC from formal schools stand to learn valuable strategies for addressing their children’s ethical orientation and other problem areas. Moreover, by proactively identifying and redressing these issues, parents demonstrate responsible parenting, aligning with research such as that by Dong et al. (2020), which shows that responsible parenting includes the obligation to be actively responsible for a child’s education, beyond merely providing financial and physical necessities.
Catering for learning style diversity and individual differences
Research shows that apart from being unique in physical features and personality, children are also unique in their learning style and intelligence (Singh et al., 2017). Indeed, as early as 334 BC, Aristotle theorized that each child had specific talents and skills requiring a learning environment that is cognizant of individual learning style (Gheaus, 2015). Bearing this uniqueness of children in mind, this research probed parental involvement in catering for children’s learning style diversity and individual differences across parents of home-schooled and CBC-pursuing children.
Therefore, thematic analysis of parents’ responses regarding learning style diversity and individual differences among children revealed three major themes alongside several sub-themes. The first theme, homeschooling parents show intentional and adaptive support centered on children’s individuality, learning pace, and individualized instruction. The second theme, minimal or unclear engagement by CBC parents, concentrated on a lack of clarity on CBC expectations, poor curriculum matching style, and role tension in homework support. Meanwhile, the third theme, different perception of roles to play in education, centered on homeschooling parents perceiving education as requiring an empowered, personalized involvement, while CBC parents perceiving it as a disconnected, system-led process (Table 3).
Table 3
Coding Matrix for catering for learning style diversity
| Theme (NVivo Parent Node Level 1) | Sub-theme (NVivo Parent Node Level 2) | Code/Node (NVivo Child Node) | Code Definition/Description |
| 1. Homeschooling: Intentional & Adaptive Support | 1.1 Deep Knowledge of Child’s Individuality | Proactive Knowledge of Preferences | Proactively knowing habits, preferences, and desires. |
| Systematic Observation | Systematic observation of specific learning behaviors (Allows for close observation). | ||
| Recognition of Uniqueness | Explicit recognition of uniqueness and individual differences. | ||
| 1.2 Personalized Pace and Flexibility | Avoidance of External Pressure | Intentional design to avoid external academic pressure. | |
| Flexible Schedule/Environment | Utilization of a flexible learning schedule/environment. | ||
| Accommodating Individual Pace | Respecting and accommodating individual pace variations for mastery. | ||
| 1.3 Receptive & Individualized Instruction | Matching Teaching to Learning Style | Deliberate efforts to match teaching style to the child’s learning style. | |
| Consideration of multi-intelligence | Consideration of multi-intelligence and varied strengths. | ||
| Use of Customized Strategies | Development and use of customized strategies. | ||
| 2. CBC: Minimal Engagement & Practical Disconnect | 2.1 Policy-Parent Gap (Lack of Clarity) | Ignorance/Confusion about CBC | Stated ignorance and confusion about the overall CBC system. |
| Reliance on Peer Information | Reliance on peer information rather than official school communication. | ||
| Unclear Guidance on Home Support | Unclear guidance on how to translate CBC goals into home support. | ||
| 2.2 Poor Style-Curriculum Matching | Difficulty Applying Style Knowledge | Expressed difficulty applying knowledge of style to CBC requirements. | |
| Structural Barriers Negate Support | Belief that structural barriers (e.g., large classes) negate individual support. | ||
| Fear of Unrecognized Strengths | Stated fear of unrecognized learning strengths by the school. | ||
| 2.3 Role Tension in Mandatory Support | Homework Support as Burden | Perception of required homework support as a burden. | |
| Self-Efficacy vs. Parental Responsibility | Assertion that the core tenet of self-efficacy suggests minimal parental responsibility in academic tasks. | ||
| Critique of Homework for Talent | Critique of homework for requiring parental input instead of developing the child’s specific talent. | ||
| 3. Divergent Beliefs on Educational Roles & Autonomy | 3.1 Homeschooling Philosophy: Empowered Autonomy | Principal Co-Teacher | Parents view themselves as principal co-teachers fully empowered to adapt the curriculum. |
| Responsible Parenting/Adaptation | Belief that responsible parenting requires responsive, constant adaptation to the child’s unique needs. | ||
| 3.2 CBC Parent Experience: Systemic Disconnection | Low Parental Agency | Low parental agency—feeling excluded from the conversation about individualized support. | |
| System Responsible for Diversity | Passive support stems from a belief that the system is responsible for adapting to diversity. |
The FGD accounts from homeschooling Parents illustrated intentional and adaptive support (Theme 1). Although a good teacher also strives to know their pupils, the homeschooling parents articulated a difference in capacity and intensity offered by the home environment, which allows for deep personalization. One parent demonstrated deep knowledge of children’s individuality (Sub-theme 1.1) and receptive & individualized instruction (Sub-theme 1.3), stating:
HSP2: As parents, it is our responsibility to know our children’s habits, preferences, desires, and dislikes among others. Therefore, we endeavor to know the best style that suits their learning in order to improve the way they are taught at home. (FGD 1)
Another participant, highlighting the importance of personalized pace and flexibility (Sub-theme 1.2), contrasted her approach with the rigidity of formal schooling, stating that
HSP2: I noticed that children are given a lot of pressure in school to perform regardless of their learning style and individual differences. Therefore, I decided to have my children learn at ease. Through homeschooling the child maximizes learning potential by doing it at his/her own pace… (FGD1)
This desire to reduce external pressure is the primary motivation, though it’s important to acknowledge that some homeschooling students still experience performance pressure imposed by the parents themselves, simply shifting the source of the expectation. A third male parent confirmed the proactive observation required, stating:
HSP3: I have watched these children grow and learn, and this has given me a unique perspective about them. Their unique styles of learning have enabled me to provide a suitable environment to boost their understanding and retention as well as considering their individual differences. (FGD1)
In stark contrast, parents of children in formal CBC schools exhibited minimal engagement and practical disconnect (Theme 2), driven by a lack of knowledge and resistance to the mandated co-educator role. Many exhibited a policy-parent gap (Sub-theme 2.1), revealing a widespread feeling of being excluded from the CBC conversation. One CBC parent had this to say
CBCP3: Although the government tried to explain to parents the meaning of CBC through organized meetings in schools, the system remains unclear to us. All I get to know about CBC is what I hear from other parents. As such I do not know which learning style suits my child. (FGD2)
Other parents acknowledged the CBC’s potential but complained of being left ignorant, making it difficult to achieve poor style-curriculum matching (Sub-theme 2.2) as noted by another CBC parent.
CBCP2: Although the CBC presents promise by giving every child a chance to prosper in areas where they are good, parents, especially the pioneer ones, were not given prior understanding of the curriculum and its implementation. This makes it very difficult for us to know how to match our children’s learning style to the CBC system. (FGD2).
This ignorance fueled role tension in the expected mandatory support (Sub-theme 2.3), where some parents resisted the academic input demanded by homework assignments:
CBCP3: Parents need not be over involved in children’s homework. Teachers should assign homework that develops children’s specific talent without relying on additional input from parents. If self-efficacy is a core tenet of this curriculum, little emphasis should be directed towards parental input. (FGD2)
This tension demonstrates a perceived conflict between the curriculum’s stated goals and the heavy, mandatory involvement required at home. The FGD accounts make it apparent that a stark difference exists in parental responsiveness. Parents of homeschooling children are readily available to identify and build on their children’s learning styles and individual differences, while parents of children in CBC formal schools exhibit reluctance in deep involvement, thus potentially failing to identify the most suitable learning styles for their children.
This divergence is critical because research links parent’s involvement in identifying children’s suitable learning styles and individual differences with children’s achievement. For instance, defining parental involvement as the active participation of parents in children’s early learning and development, Kook and Greenfield (2021) argue that through such involvement parents are able to intervene in children’s learning at home by improving children’s learning outcomes. Understanding that children’s learning is best anchored in contexts where it occurs such as the social, cultural and family contexts, Alanen et al. (2015) advocate for parental involvement in discovering ideal learning styles for children with diverse individual differences.
Research also shows that when information is presented in a manner to meet the child’s learning style, it becomes meaningful and the child is able to retain much of this information leading to a broader understanding (Pritchard, 2017). Four distinct learning styles are commonly featured in the discourse on children learning. The visual learning style is identified as an ideal style for children who process information visually through body language and facial expressions (Lu & Yang, 2018). Therefore, by closely monitoring their children, parents of children who school from home are well placed to identify visual learners and raise the development of their imagination, something that parents of children who pursue CBC from formal school can learn from.
The second group are auditory learners who need to listen and hear in order to learn. It is argued that they process information through discussions and talking (Kayalar & Kayalar, 2017; Malik, 2019). This group of children requires verbal directions to clarify written information and instructions possibly in quiet environments like the home information. Since homeschooling takes place in a relatively quiet home environment, it is apparent that parents of homeschooling children readily identify and verbally direct such children if they are in the family. This is an experience that parents of children in formal CBC schools can borrow from, to best guide their children.
Tactile learners prefer to learn by touching, requiring projects and activities that encourage them to be hands-on (Liu et al., 2020) in line with the Montessori Philosophy which posits that the mind will often remember what the hand does. Therefore, the personalized and flexible nature of homeschooling allows for a tailored education plan that can exploit tactile learning that aligns with individual learning differences among children.
Tactile learning is embedded in kinesthetic learning. Ikawati and Kowiyah (2021) identify kinesthetic learning as a style that engages movement and performing tasks practically. This style leverages children’s physical sensations and a hands-on approach. In an article appearing in Pathways to Family wellness, Guffanti (2014) refers to homeschooling as the natural fit for the kinesthetic child. The argument projected is that homeschooling allows freedom for the child to move, and flexibility for the parent to tailor the curriculum to the individual child’s interests making the approach suitable for the kinesthetic child. This argument by Gujjanti (2014) regarding homeschooling is consistent with theorists and practitioners of education who have posited that the model of education that maximizes personalized attention towards a child’s uniqueness is the most ideal (Bush, 2020; Gay, 2018).
There is no doubt that parents of children pursuing CBC, which seeks to transform the classroom into a skills-aligned environment, have so much to learn from homeschooling parents when it comes to customizing learning experiences. Homeschooling gives children individualized attention and focus enabling parents to address specific abilities and needs of each. The CBC places significant emphasis on parental involvement in learners’ holistic support while reinforcing learning at home. By borrowing from homeschooling parents, parents of children pursuing CBC in formal schools can complement the quality of learning which is deemed inadequate in formal CBC schools (Luvinzu, 2021).
Providing an interesting and challenging learning environment
Research underscores the central role that the environments play in children’s learning particularly anchored on the secure relationships with responsive and caring adults (Capo et al., 2019). Defining learning environments as spaces that nurture and support young children’s development, Gago et al. (2022) argue that the home environment, whether physical, social or temporal, contributes to regulatory capabilities in early childhood. Buoyed by this contribution, this study examined how parents of children in CBC formal schools can learn from parents of homeschooling children regarding providing an interesting and challenging learning environment for their children. FGD accounts from the two sets of parents as highlighted through a thematic map revealed three themes reflecting divergent contributions to the learning environment (Table 4).
Table 4
Coding Matrix for Structuring the Learning Environment
| Theme (NVivo Parent Node Level 1) | Sub-theme (NVivo Parent Node Level 2) | Code/Node (NVivo Child Node) | Code Definition/Description |
| 1. Homeschooling: Proper Structuring & Provision of Protective Space | 1.1 Guaranteeing Children Safety and Controlling Quality | Safety by Minimizing Congestion | Address safety by minimizing congestion. |
| Maximizing Moral/Emotional Safety | Maximizing moral and emotional safety. | ||
| Limiting Disruptive Activities | Limiting disruptive activities in school programs. | ||
| 1.2 Social-Emotional Nurturing | Enhancement of Attachment/Bonding | Enhancement of attachment and bonding. | |
| Homes Ideal for Holistic Growth | Regarding homes as ideal for holistic growth. | ||
| 1.3 Proactive Space Conception | Home Environment Conducive for Learning | Belief in home environment as superior and conducive for learning. | |
| 2. CBC: Limited Role & Environmental Barriers | 2.1 Physical and Emotional Strain | Handling Children Drains Parents | Belief that handling children drains parents emotionally. |
| Unwilling to Confine Children | Unwilling to confine children indoors due to overwhelming presence. | ||
| 2.2 Inadequate Physical Environment | Small Homes Not Ideal | The small nature of homes is not ideal for learning. | |
| Inability to Provide Ample Space | Most are not able to provide ample learning spaces. | ||
| 2.3 Supervision and Compliance Challenges | Difficulty Stopping Sneaking Out | Finding it difficult to stop children sneaking out to play. | |
| Little to Improve Supervision | Parents do little to improve supervision of children’s learning. | ||
| 3. Divergent Space Conception and Role | 3.1 Homeschooling Philosophy: Proactive Space | Proactive Space Provides Comfort/Support | Belief that home environment is a proactive space that deliberately provides comfort, security, and academic support. |
| Nurtures Development/Regulation | Such an environment nurtures development and regulatory capabilities. | ||
| 3.2 CBC Parent Experience: Passive Space | Passive Space Belief | Belief that home is a passive space that does not need to cater for a supportive academic environment. | |
| Role External to Physical Setup | Perceive parents’ role as external to the physical learning setup, leading to poor study habits. |
The first theme highlighted the intentional structuring & protective space (Theme 1) adopted by homeschooling parents. These parents were driven by a desire to guarantee children’s safety and control quality (Sub-theme 1.1) and facilitate social-emotional nurturing (Sub-theme 1.2). One female homeschooling parent demonstrated this commitment to safety and quality, noting that
HSP 4: I started homeschooling my children when the school environment was ruined by the introduction of free primary education. Classrooms became so overcrowded that the quality of education was compromised. (FGD1)
Another parent stressed the importance of the home environment for moral development and attachment:
HSP5: Homeschooling provides the ideal environment through which parents or guardians can protect our children from negative influences. It also allows us to form deep and lasting bonds with our children (Maximizing moral safety and enhancing bonding). (FGD1)
Other parents further reinforced the proactive space conception (Sub-theme 1.3), arguing against the formal school environment due to external risks:
HSP3: You can’t compare the learning environment at home with that in a formal school. The formal school environment exposes children to drug and alcohol abuse… Moreover, children engage in vices such as violence and promiscuity. This engagement in vices happens even as disruptions from strikes are also on the increase. (Limiting disruptive activities and viewing home as superior). (FGD1)
In contrast, parents of children pursuing CBC in formal schools exhibited a limited role and environmental barriers (Theme 2). Their accounts revealed both physical and emotional obstacles to creating a conducive learning setting. Some parents experienced physical and emotional strain (Sub-theme 2.1):
CBCP4: I find it hard to confine the children in the house after school… Their presence is quite overwhelming. (FGD2)
This demonstrates the emotional toll supporting children’s learning has on CBC parents, contributing to their unwillingness to supervise children’s learning. Other CBC parents pointed to the inadequacy of the physical environment at home (Sub-theme 2.2).
CBCP3: Most of our houses are small compared to our family sizes. Therefore, we are not able to create a good learning environment for our children. (FGD2)
Furthermore, challenges with supervision and compliance (Sub-theme 2.3) were evident.
CBCP6: My children take advantage of me being away and sneak out to play instead of completing the assignments I give them. (FGD2)
This confirms that parents do little to actively improve supervision of at-home learning.
The accounts from parents of formal school-going children were corroborated by a study conducted by Kumar et al. (2018) in Nairobi’s low resource informal settlements. Seeking school teachers’ views on shifting parental roles, they learned from the teachers that most of today’s parents lack the skills to mold children. Besides, Kumar et al. (2018) also established that some parents are drunkards who neglect the learning needs of children. The study by Kumar et al. (2018) pointed out that parents lack awareness of an ideal environment that could protect children from exposure to undesirable behavior. Moreover, they determined that this lack of awareness is at times exacerbated by domestic violence that has a negative effect on children’s learning.
Existing literature aligns with the capability of homeschooling to provide a suitable environment for children to learn. For instance, Cantor et al. (2021) invoked the concepts of malleability, plasticity, and individuality in children’s learning, pointing out that children are unique and holistic learners who learn best in environments that suit their individual needs, interests, and motivation. Indeed, the utility of natural environments in the development of social skills and self-identity among children has been documented (Mann et al., 2022). Moreover, natural space has been associated with children’s mental and physical health (Chawla, 2015).
It is apparent from the findings of this data that parents of children pursuing CBC from formal schools can gain valuable insights from parents of children who school from home, regarding the creation of ideal learning environments. Firstly, parents of children pursuing CBC have an opportune moment to customize their children’s learning experiences to align with individual differences, weaknesses, and strengths in the same way homeschooling parents do. Still, parents of CBC children can advocate for the incorporation of personalization and flexibility in the CBC system, similar to what homeschooling offers children, in order to allow for self-direction. More importantly, it is incumbent upon CBC parents to strive to nurture strong bonds with children in the same way homeschooling parents do. This way, they can foster learning environments that are positive and supportive.
Promoting Creativity
The other area of interest revolved around developing creativity among children. This area was necessary particularly among CBC parents who needed to learn from their homeschooling counterparts about promoting children’s creativity. Research highlights the importance of creativity in childhood development. Yet, most parents ignore its relevance in real life learning settings (Engel, 2021; Stearns, 2016). Creativity has been associated with an increase in self-expression, imagination, and essential life skills among children (Damar, 2022; Stephenson & Dobson, 2020). Three themes were recurrent in the FGDs in relation to promoting creativity among the two sets of parents (Table 5).
Table 5
Coding Matrix for Promoting Creativity
| Theme | Sub-theme | Code/Node |
| 1.Homeschooling: Creativity as a Central Pillar | 1.1 Intentional Curriculum & Tool Integration | Belief that creativity is a central cog in children’s learningAdvocate for the integration of technology and novel platforms to encourage innovationBelief in imaginative resources such as podcasts and stories to spur imagination |
| 1.2 Autonomy and Collaborative Support | Call for a flexible curriculum that allows parents to emphasize creativityEmbraces diversity in intelligence beyond academic norms | |
| 2. CBC: Lineage towards traditional learning devoid of creativity | 2.1 Grade-oriented learning | Grades should be the focus of schooling Other talents are not necessary in an exam-focused learning |
| 2.2 Disruption of learning | Focusing on creativity wastes learning timeThe school program is disrupted by creative activities. | |
| 2.3 Inadequate practical exposure and time | Parents lack time for practical learningParents are not compelled to waste time on practical learning that does not influence grades | |
| 3. Varying goals for education | 3.1 Homeschooling Goal: Innovation and Self-Expression | Learning for increased innovationNeed to integrate life skills in learning |
| 3.2 CBC Parent Goal: Success in examinations | Need to maximize academic performance Creativity as subordinate to exams |
The homeschooling parents’ FGD accounts emphasized creativity as core to children’s development (Theme 1). Therefore, they advocated for integrated education that subsumes innovation and academics with self-expression and life skills as key pillars (Engel, 2021; Stearns, 2016). For instance, technology’s role was implicit in one homeschooling parents’ account emphasizing integrating use of tools with an intentional curriculum (Sub-theme 1.1)
HSP5: Homeschooling, particularly in this technology era is critical to children’s creative development. By defying the conventional approach to learning, homeschooling incorporates novel tools and platforms that encourage innovation and creativity. (FGD1)
Another homeschooling parent focused on resources that engage the imagination, arguing that,
HSP6: There are several resources designed for homeschooling that enhance creativity and imagination. Take, for instance, the Story Seeds Podcast, which engages children’s minds in a world of imagination. Exposure to such imaginative stories encourages children to be creative in exploring new ideas. (FGD1)
The ability to adapt and collaborate, was also recurrent among homeschooling parents (Sub-theme 1.2):
HSP4: The fact that in homeschooling, we as families decide on whichever curriculum to use and the pace at which our children should progress, we are able to emphasize creativity in their learning. At times, through a support system that we refer to as co-ops, we are able to come together and plan group activities like arts and crafts, sports, and field trips through which we further impart creativity and social ethos in our children. (FGD1).
On the contrary, in spite of the hope of nurturing children’s creativity that CBC promises, parents of children in CBC formal schools still hold beliefs of traditional society that did not recognize creativity (Theme 2). The following narratives were consistent in the FGD with parents of children pursuing the CBC system of education.
CBCP7: We send our children to school to read and achieve good grades, and for that reason, we expect nothing less. Some activities, such as music and dance festivals, are a waste of time. (FGD2)
The perception of the system’s rigidity fueled this resistance:
CBCP8: You know that our education system is exam-oriented and does not recognize other talents. The moment you fail in your exams that is it. It will not matter whether you are creative or not. Therefore, as parents, we have no business trying to nurture creativity in our children when we clearly know that their academic performance is what will matter (Assertion that academic performance is paramount). (FGD2)
Furthermore, parents cited practical constraints & time limitation (Sub-theme 2.3) as a factor:
CBCP3: We have little or no time to spend with children, given the hectic program of activities throughout the week. (FGD2)
These FGD accounts by CBC parents reflect concerns by Kimani (2021). Among these concerns, Kimani highlights suppression of creativity by both teachers and parents who perceive creative thoughts as indiscipline. In some instances, teachers fail to appreciate diverse talents fearing that creative children pose threats to their content mastery. The question of parental involvement in children’s creativity has attracted a lot of scholarly interest.
Makero (2012) examined children’s creativity from a family set-up perspective noting that most families perceive academics to be more valuable and superior to natural talents. Therefore, they tend to invest more in academics as opposed to the creative minds of their children. Pugsley and Acar (2018) examined how parental factors and home environment impacted on children’s creativity. They determined that home environments that valued creativity alongside values and attitudes that parents hold towards creativity were critical in nurturing children’s creative minds. They further established that mindful parenting style such as exhibited by homeschooling parents supports creativity in children.
On their part, Jankowska and Gralew Ski (2022) explored creativity from a familial context, seeking to find out how parenting styles impact the climate for creativity. They established that a parenting style built on constructivism such as that employed by homeschooling parents is positively related to supporting endurance in creative efforts on one side, and the aura for novelty and variety on the other. Therefore, the findings showing that homeschooling parents hold a lot of promise for developing their children’s creativity, possesses a lot of insights that parents whose children pursue CBC in formal schools can learn from. For instance, parents of CBC children can learn to encourage children to pursue their natural instincts the same way homeschooling parents do in order to foster creativity. By encouraging their children to ask questions, they can scaffold these children to higher levels of creativity. Similarly, it emerges that homeschooling parents hold positive values and attitudes towards creative minded children. Likewise, CBC parents can shed-off the parochial notion of schools for academic proficiency and embrace positive values and attitudes towards creativity enhancing activities like the arts, drama and music.
The flexibility in homeschooling provides an avenue for parents to devote more time towards children’s reflection and in-depth exploration. While parents of CBC children point to a lack of time, they can assign children activities that require reflective thinking and extended projects that can encourage in-depth exploration and concept comprehension. More importantly, CBC parents should embrace and exploit home environments which are supportive, allowing children to learn from their own mistakes. Consequently, they can adapt a culture of safe and supportive classrooms that foster innovation, expression of opinions, and experimentation.
Theoretical Alignment and Insights for CBC Parents
The study’s findings, showing that homeschooling parents hold significant promise for fostering creativity, align strongly with external literature. For instance, under values and mindset, research consistently shows that parental factors and home environments that value creativity alongside positive values are critical (Pugsley & Acar, 2018; Makero, 2012). The mindful parenting style and constructivist approach exhibited by homeschooling parents are positively related to supporting endurance in creative efforts and the pursuit of novelty (Jankowska & Gralewski, 2022).
Meanwhile, the flexibility and deliberate intent of the homeschooling model offer invaluable insights for CBC parents. First, CBC parents should embrace positive values and attitudes towards creativity-enhancing activities like the arts, drama, and music by shedding the parochial notion of schooling being solely for academic excellence. Through the homeschooling parents’ perspectives, CBC parents can exploit the potential inherent in technology to scaffold children to proximal zones of creativity development. With a safe and supportive learning environment at home, children learn from their own mistakes, this eventually fosters innovation, expression of opinions, and experimentation—the exact qualities the CBC is mandated to develop.
Implications for CBC Implementation
The Competency-Based Curriculum is critical to the holistic development of children, focusing on core competencies such as creativity, critical thinking, collaboration, digital literacy, communication, and lifelong learning. Despite the potential inherent in CBC, its implementation in Kenya has often met some resistance from parents. However, the findings showing contributions to learning made by parents of homeschooling children are important for the successful implementation of CBC.
The study confirms that parents wield the power to oversee the successful implementation of CBC, for instance, helping identify their children’s problem areas and trying to address them. On this front, parents of children pursuing CBC from formal schools appear to be justified in feeling aggrieved for having been omitted from CBC implementation. Education stakeholders must therefore seek collaborative avenues that can enable these parents to team up with teachers in identifying children’s problem areas. If this practice is working so well for parents of children schooling from home, it certainly should work for parents with children in formal schools. The finding of parental involvement in identifying problem areas among the parents of homeschooling children emphasizes researchers’ assertion that students whose parents remain involved in their learning show better attendance and behavior, perform better, and adapt well to school (Gross et al, 2020; Van Laere & Vandenbroeck, 2020).
The finding that parents with homeschooling children are able to cater to learning style diversity and individual differences may be due to the small number of children they handle. Large class sizes in Kenya have been identified as a challenge to the implementation of CBC (Isaboke et al., 2021). These large class sizes prevent teachers from reaching individual learners. The implication then is that parents with children in these schools should strive to cater to the learning style diversity and individuality of their children by helping them through assigned tasks. Additionally, they should get involved with schools where they can advocate for small class sizes that can oversee the successful implementation of CBC.
The finding that the home environment is an interesting and challenging one for children to learn, as highlighted by parents of homeschooling children, implies that implementation of CBC can be successful if parents of children pursuing it in formal schools can exploit the home environment. This category of parents needs to realize that they should provide an environment in which their children can feel comfortable and supported, instead of being angered by the demands of the CBC system. According to the Kenya Institute of Curriculum Development (KICD), parental empowerment and engagement in the learning process are central to children’s growth and development (KICD, 2019). Therefore, educational stakeholders must find ways of involving parents fully in CBC implementation.
Meanwhile, parents of children pursuing CBC in formal schools can gain experiences from parents of homeschooling children to promote creativity in their children. It is necessary to discard the notion that schools should focus on academic performance and accept creativity-enhancing activities such as sports, drama, music, and the arts. Creativity is the freest form of self-expression and boosts children’s self-reflection and emotional health (Tok, 2022). In the same way that parents of homeschooling children appreciate and encourage their children’s creative minds, parents of children in formal CBC schools should liaise with teachers to provide opportunities for creative play and thinking. Children should be offered creative materials and experiences, probably through parental involvement. Moreover, KICD recommends that it is within parents’ capability to identify children’s talents and abilities and collaborate with teachers to nurture such talents. However, such collaborations require forums initiated by educational stakeholders to bring parents on board with the CBC implementation.
Conclusion
Kenya’s desire to implement the CBC has faced several hurdles, including limited parental involvement. This is so in spite of the important role parents play in children’s learning and growth. However, the panacea to parental involvement in children learning in formal CBC schools may lie in insights from parents of homeschooling children. Using experiences of this set of parents, it is clear that CBC implementation lies squarely on parents aiding in identifying children’s problem areas, catering for children’s learning style diversity and individual differences, using the home environment as an interesting and challenging one for children to learn comfortably, and embracing and promoting creativity in their children. This approach is intended to inform structured sensitization programs for mainstream parents, who primarily need help understanding the how and why of CBC involvement, recognizing that their passive stance toward schoolwork is not synonymous with neglecting the teaching of values and discipline at home.
Therefore, educational stakeholders should strive to learn from the roles homeschooling parents play in their children’s learning, to sensitize parents with children in formal CBC schools regarding the important role they can play in children’s learning. These parents should be involved in the implementation of CBC by being engaged during curriculum changes. Moreover, parents of children in formal CBC schools could be encouraged to seek out experienced homeschooling parents to share practices on how to deeply impact learning among their own children. While it is certainly beneficial and necessary to consult teachers for classroom-specific support and alignment (e.g., what skills are being taught), consulting homeschooling parents provides insights into the mechanics of successful, personalized, home-based co-education (e.g., how to set the pace, manage resources, and foster creativity), addressing the fundamental engagement skills the mainstream system currently lacks.
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