Perspectives – News and Comments (note 1)
Home School Researcher Volume 40, No. 4, 2026, p. 13-25
Note 1. The “Perspectives – News and Comments” section of this journal consists of articles that have not undergone normal blind peer review.
Julia Rosa Nakanishi
Graduate Student, Aoyama Gakuin University, Tokyo, Japan, yuria.rosa@gmail.com
Abstract
This article presents a critical narrative literature review examining the socio-cultural motives that influence parental decisions to homeschool. While synthesizing findings from both historical and contemporary research, the review not only confirms well-established motivations but also uncovers a set of evolving and underexplored motives that have gained traction in recent years. Recently emerged motives include parental concerns over exposure to LGBTQ+ topics, sex education at school, critical race theory, privacy of public figures, military context, financial pressures, pandemic-related disruptions, and English language learning. By integrating both foundational and novel themes, this review advances the field’s understanding of the shifting landscape of homeschooling motivations and reveals persistent systemic shortcomings in conventional education.
Keywords: homeschooling, motives, alternative education, pandemic, language learning
Homeschooling has seen increasing prominence across the United States in recent decades, drawing growing attention from researchers, policymakers, educators, and the broader public (Hernholm, 2024). Much of this interest focuses on the complex interplay of values, beliefs, and circumstances that shape parents’ decisions to homeschool (Ray, 2015), which scholars have examined through various conceptual frameworks (Lois, 2013; Stevens, 2001; Van Galen, 1991).
Recent research has identified a wide and evolving range of homeschooling motives, including religious convictions, moral and value-based concerns, dissatisfaction with traditional schooling environments, educational flexibility, and race-related experiences (Collom, 2005; Cook et al., 2013; Green-Hennessy & Mariotti, 2023; Green & Hoover-Dempsey, 2007; Isenberg, 2007; Jolly & Matthews, 2018; Kunzmann & Gaither, 2020, 2023; Ray, 2018; Thomas, 2016). In addition to these long-established factors, more recent developments, including the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and heightened political controversies surrounding gender education and critical race theory, have introduced new dimensions to homeschooling decisions that earlier comprehensive reviews did not fully address. This underscores the need for a critical and updated synthesis of homeschooling motives.
This article seeks to provide an updated narrative literature review by integrating both longstanding and emerging motives, thereby offering a more current and nuanced understanding of homeschooling practices. Beyond contributing to academic knowledge, this article holds important significance for education policy, school practice, and broader social understanding. Examining the diverse motivations behind homeschooling highlights the need to better recognize and support the needs of families who choose this path, while simultaneously revealing structural shortcomings within the traditional school system. Understanding these motivations offers critical insights for policymakers and educators striving to create more flexible, responsive, and inclusive educational environments that can better serve all students and strengthen the education system as a whole.
This study addresses the following guiding research question: What are the socio-cultural motives influencing homeschooling parents? To answer this question, the article first reviews major frameworks for categorizing homeschooling motivations. It then examines individual motives, thematically organized to move from broad ideological and moral foundations to family-centered and educational considerations, followed by external life circumstances, concerns about school environments, and finally, special cases. This structure aims to present the full range of motives clearly, without imposing rigid categorical divisions.
Methodology
This study employs a comprehensive narrative literature review methodology to examine the motives of homeschooling parents. Drawing on a wide range of academic sources, including scholarly articles, reports, and reputable online resources, this review analyzes both historical and recent research to provide a thorough and objective exploration of the topic. Secondary data were selected to enable a broader perspective across foundational and contemporary research, allowing for greater depth than would have been possible with primary data collection (Hyman, 1987). The review incorporates key studies from established researchers alongside recent contributions from emerging scholars, offering insights into the historical context, demographics, legal frameworks, and evolving motivations that shape the homeschooling landscape. This article is partially based on an updated and abbreviated version of the author’s unpublished bachelor’s thesis, which has been substantially revised and expanded to incorporate new literature and insights.
Findings
Categorization of Motives
The motivations of homeschooling parents can primarily be classified into four ways. First, using a dichotomy introduced by Van Galen (1986, 1988) in her doctoral thesis and subsequent studies, researchers have categorized parents’ motivations into ideological and pedagogical motives (Green-Hennessy, 2014; Green-Hennessy, 2023; Hodge et al., 2017). Ideological motives involve parents’ conscious decisions to avoid public schools due to dissatisfaction with the values taught, prioritizing moral and values instruction at home. Pedagogical motives focus on promoting the child’s educational development, with parents rejecting limiting school methods in favor of more natural, individualized learning. However, recent research suggests that parents are often influenced by both ideological and pedagogical factors simultaneously, making strict distinctions difficult (Hanna, 2012; Tan, 2020).
Second, Stevens (2001) proposes a classification into “heaven-based” (p. 115) (sometimes referred to as belief-based) and “earth-based” (p. 128) (sometimes referred to as inclusive-based) motives. The heaven-based category reflects motivations rooted in religious principles, overarching life views, and ideological commitments to a particular vision of education. These parents typically seek to instill specific moral or spiritual worldviews through homeschooling. In contrast, earth-based home educators are driven by situation-specific, pragmatic concerns, focusing on addressing immediate educational needs such as dissatisfaction with school quality, special learning needs, or social issues. This model highlights the continuum between deeply principled and practically oriented motivations within the homeschooling population.
Third, Lois (2013) further distinguishes between first-choice and second-choice homeschoolers, emphasizing whether homeschooling is pursued out of intention or circumstances. First-choice homeschoolers view homeschooling as an integral part of their educational philosophy, often motivated by religious convictions and a desire to integrate faith into their children’s education. Unlike Van Galen’s distinction, first-choice homeschoolers make a conscious, proactive decision, and their commitment tends to be more permanent (Green-Hennessy, 2023). In contrast, second-choice homeschoolers are driven by needs, challenges, or dissatisfaction with school environments (Jolly & Matthew, 2020), reacting to circumstances beyond their control (Heuer & Donovan, 2017; Parson & Lewis, 2010). Often, dissatisfaction precedes the decision to homeschool (Winstanley, 2009), and parents sometimes homeschool only one child, depending on individual needs, rather than all of their children (Heuer & Donovan, 2017; Isenberg, 2007).
Fourth, Heuer and Donovan (2017) created the category of proactive and reactive homeschoolers, which highly aligns with the previous category. Proactive homeschoolers choose homeschooling out of conviction, while reactive homeschoolers withdraw their children at some point later. Besides these foundational typological frameworks, several scholars have attempted to empirically cluster homeschooling motivations into broader categories (Collom, 2005; Mayberry, 1989; Mayberry & Knowles, 1989; Rothermel, 2003; Spiegler, 2008). Given this complexity, the following sections examine individual motives without imposing rigid categorizations. Having reviewed existing frameworks, the following sections explore individual motives in detail, starting with religious motivations, historically one of the strongest drivers of homeschooling.
Religion
A widely known and studied motive for homeschooling is religion (Kunzman, 2009, 2010). Although the vast majority of homeschoolers in the United States are Christians, the homeschooling community has a diverse community of religious affiliations (Ray, 2010). A central motivation behind choosing homeschooling in this context is the desire to integrate their preferred religion into the daily curriculum and establish faith (Thomas, 2019). Many hope to implement simple activities such as bible reading or prayer.
The secular school system in America fails to include religious education in the curriculum. Conservatives perceive schools as “the evils of secular humanism” (Ammerman, 1991; Gaither, 2008). The absence of religious content prompts parents to choose homeschooling, where they can teach their children religion, religious-related values, and faith. Religious motives are more than just implementing daily bible readings. Educating their child at home is seen by many as a direct calling from God. They believe that it is their God-given duty as parents to take charge of their children’s education (Kunzmann, 2010). “For conservative Christian homeschoolers, the education of their children is a God-given right and responsibility, and one they can delegate only at great moral and spiritual peril” (Kunzmann, 2010, p. 23). In contrast to the secular school system, fundamentalists believe that America should be pro-religion (Ammerman, 1991).
Another angle of religious motivations applies to families of religious minorities. While Christians are the majority in homeschooling, it is gaining popularity among other religions (Kunzmann, 2010). These families often choose homeschooling to ensure the preservation and transmission of their minority religious beliefs to their children (Saghir, 2011). This choice is encouraged by two major needs: protecting their children from potential bullying coming from religious differences and conserving their religious beliefs. Although they are still a small group among homeschoolers compared to Christians, Muslim Americans claim to be the fastest-growing religious group of homeschoolers in the United States (Kunzmann, 2010).
Conversely, there exist several parents who seek homeschooling education free from religious affiliation. Despite opting for homeschooling, which is often affiliated with religion, these parents do not want to be bound to a specific religious doctrine or potentially be forced to change their current church (Dennis & Fields-Smith, 2020). One parent expressed concern that many Christian homeschooling programs, both in-person and virtual, require families to sign statements of faith to participate. However, some families may be reluctant to do so, either because they already belong to a home church or prefer not to join a faith community at all. They argue that, with the increasing diversity in home education across the United States, it is essential to recognize that homeschooling is no longer solely a religious practice. They emphasize that the need for more inclusive policies and practices is long overdue. And the statistics support this perspective. Homeschoolers are not exclusively religious-motivated parents, their reasons are very diverse, and they should not be forced into a box.
This section shows that religion is a broad motive. It might be simply religious education at home due to the absence of it at school, a calling from God to homeschool, preservation of their minority religion, or in the opposite, seeking the absence of religion.
Morals and Values
Another highly significant motive for homeschooling is the desire to provide moral instruction and instill core values (McQuiggan et al., 2017; Ray, 2015). Although often closely intertwined with religious considerations, this motivation can also be entirely independent of religious beliefs. Parents driven by moral concerns seek to impart to their children a comprehensive set of values, ethical principles, and a worldview they personally endorse, with the aim of shaping their character (Ray, 2023). This rationale resonates with many families, highlighting the strong influence of moral development in their decision to homeschool.
Kunzman (2010) emphasizes that homeschooling shapes not only a child’s intellect but, perhaps more importantly, their character. Beyond teaching a basic distinction between right and wrong, character formation is seen as profoundly influenced by broader worldviews, particularly within Christian homeschooling communities. Many parents seek to shield their children from external influences they perceive as threatening to the moral foundation they wish to instill, regarding aspects of modern culture as undermining their values (Apple, 2005; McDannell, 1995; Stevens, 2001). Kunzman (2010) further notes that this protective stance often stems from concerns about what is perceived as the moral decline of broader society.
One interviewed mother, for instance, justified her decision to homeschool by stating,
Why would you want to send your child away for the majority of the day and let someone else’s ideas and personality be placed in your child every day? I’m her parent. God gave her to me to form and to raise, so I feel that’s my responsibility. (Kunzman, 2009, p. 180)
This statement exemplifies the strong emphasis homeschooling parents place on actively shaping their child’s moral character according to their own convictions.
Overall, moral and value-based motivations reflect parents’ desire to take a central, active role in their children’s character formation, either grounded in religious tradition or independent moral worldviews.
As Protection Against Conflicting Beliefs (LGBTQ+, sex education and critical race theory)
A prominent and extensively discussed motive for homeschooling is the desire to shield children from educational content perceived as conflicting with familial values and beliefs (Kunzman, 2010). Many parents identify a strong divide between the principles taught at home and those presented in traditional schools. Public schools predominantly teach evolutionary theory, whereas many religious parents uphold Creationism, the belief that the world was created by God (Long, 2011). This divergence fosters unease and often prompts families to pursue homeschooling. Religious conservatives argue that intellectual pursuits acquire true meaning only when aligned with religious truth (Cizek, 1994; Kunzman, 2009; McDannell, 1995; Valle, 1998, as cited in Kunzman, 2010). Educational materials provided by institutions such as Abeka Academy emphasize biblical authority across all disciplines (Shoemaker, 2021; Kunzman, 2010), encouraging students to interpret history and science through a Christian worldview.
However, more recently, new and more specific concerns have emerged within this broader category, particularly regarding the inclusion of topics related to LGBTQ+ identities, sex education, and critical race theory (CRT) in public school curricula. Controversies regarding the inclusion of gender- and sex education content have further contributed to the rise in homeschooling (Moline, 2023). Parents who hold conservative perspectives often consider gender identity and sexuality inappropriate for school settings. Political figures such as Florida Governor Ron DeSantis have encouraged parents to withdraw their children from public schools to avoid perceived ideological indoctrination (Sawchuk, 2022). DeSantis emphasized that Florida prohibits practices such as mandatory pronoun declarations and the incorporation of gender ideology into the curriculum (Moline, 2023). In parallel, the Home School Legal Defense Association (HSLDA) actively opposes legal and educational developments perceived as threats to the traditional family structure, including the legalization of same-sex marriage (Kunzman, 2010). Conservative Christian homeschooling communities often seek to reinforce traditional gender roles within their educational frameworks (Kunzman, 2009; Stevens, 2001).
Concerns surrounding the teaching of critical race theory (CRT) have introduced an additional dimension of conflict. CRT, a concept asserting that racism is both systemic and institutional in American society, has become a source of considerable political and educational controversy (Ellis, 2021). In response, many Black families have turned to homeschooling as a form of resistance to perceived racial biases within public education (Jones & Terry Ellis, 2023). The proportion of Black families choosing homeschooling increased markedly from 3.3 percent at the beginning of 2020 to 16.1 percent by the end of the same year (Ellis, 2021). By contrast, the overall homeschooling rate among all groups approximately doubled, from 2.8 percent to 5.4 percent. Together, these patterns highlight how ideological, religious, cultural, and racial tensions increasingly influence parents’ decisions to pursue homeschooling as an alternative educational pathway.
More specific concerns have emerged within this broader category, particularly regarding the inclusion of topics related to LGBTQ+ identities, sex education, and critical race theory (CRT) in public school curricula. These issues, though still under-researched in academic literature, have rapidly become central to contemporary homeschooling discourse, especially in conservative communities. While previous generations of homeschoolers often cited generalized moral or religious concerns, today’s parents increasingly reference specific political and cultural developments as key triggers for withdrawing their children from school. This trend reflects a shift from broad ideological opposition to school content toward targeted objections to perceived ideological indoctrination in areas of gender, sexuality, and race. Although media reports and policy statements highlight the salience of these issues in the public imagination, empirical research on how they influence homeschooling decisions remains limited, pointing to a significant gap in the scholarly literature. Nevertheless, growing anecdotal and journalistic evidence suggests that these topics have become a defining feature of the current wave of ideologically motivated homeschooling, meriting further academic attention and analysis.
In sum, while traditionally framed within broader moral or religious concerns, recent homeschooling decisions are increasingly driven by targeted objections to school content on politically and culturally sensitive topics such as LGBTQ+ identities, sex education, and critical race theory. These emerging concerns, though prominent in public and media discourse, remain under-researched in academic literature. Their growing influence reflects a shift toward more issue-specific ideological motivations, underscoring a significant gap in current scholarship and pointing to an important direction for future research.
Emphasis on Family & Meaningful Contacts
Many families are motivated to homeschool by the desire to build strong bonds and connections with their children, leading them to withdraw from traditional schooling (National Center for Education Statistics, n.d.). Homeschooling allows families to spend more quality time together, fostering deeper relationships between parents, siblings, and extended family members. By appreciating everyday moments collectively, families can enjoy the simple joys of daily life. The family is often viewed as a fundamental pillar, serving both as a protective shield and a nurturing sanctuary (Kunzman, 2010). This educational choice holds the potential to strengthen not only parent-child relationships but also sibling bonds (Kunzman & Gaither, 2020). Within the safe environment of the home, parents can guide purposeful and meaningful social interactions, extending beyond the family to carefully selected peers. By fostering safe and positive socialization, homeschooling families aim to nurture children’s social skills, emotional development, and the ability to grow into respectful, empathetic adults.
Education
A highly prominent reason for homeschooling is the desire to provide a more personalized and customized education than what is typically available in mainstream schools (Ray, 2015). Parents are motivated by both reactive and proactive considerations. On one hand, a substantial group of reactive parents expresses dissatisfaction with the quality of education offered in traditional schools, finding that it fails to meet their children’s individual needs and aspirations. On the other hand, a group of proactive parents chooses homeschooling based on the conviction that they are well equipped—or even better equipped—to deliver a superior educational experience at home. Pedagogically motivated parents seek to provide an individualized and tailored education aligned with their children’s strengths, needs, and interests, a level of customization they believe is unattainable within the constraints of traditional schooling. Additionally, some parents pursue unconventional and innovative educational approaches they feel are better realized through homeschooling.
Although homeschooling parents acknowledge that teaching a classroom of thirty unfamiliar students requires specialized training, they remain confident that no one is better suited to educate their own children (Kunzman, 2010). They argue that the intimate knowledge they possess of their children’s personalities, learning styles, emotional needs, and intellectual strengths allows them to offer a uniquely responsive and supportive educational environment that institutional settings cannot easily replicate. This individualized attention, they believe, enables them to cultivate both academic achievement and personal growth more effectively than traditional schools. As one parent summarized, “I’m not a teacher in the sense of being prepared to teach large groups of strangers, but there is nobody who [can] teach my kids better than I can” (Kunzman, 2010, p. 22).
Empirical evidence supports aspects of these parental convictions. Homeschoolers consistently achieve above-average test scores when compared to their counterparts in the public school system (Ray, 2011). These outcomes persist regardless of the parents’ level of education, certification status, or the degree of state regulation over homeschooling. However, it is notable that well-educated mothers are somewhat more likely to homeschool their young children (Isenberg, 2007). Furthermore, homeschooled students score above the national average on standardized assessments such as the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) (NHERI, 2016). Reflecting this academic success, a growing trend can be observed: leading universities, including Harvard College, MIT, and Stanford University, actively encourage and welcome applications from homeschooled students (Harvard College, n.d.; MIT Admissions, n.d.; Stanford University, n.d.).
Flexibility
Another major motive for homeschooling is the ability to maintain flexibility in daily life. This flexibility extends beyond education, encompassing the freedom to organize schedules, activities, and routines according to individual family needs and personal rhythms. Many parents are drawn to homeschooling because it offers a lifestyle that accommodates unique preferences and priorities. Rivero (2008) emphasizes that homeschooling grants families an unparalleled degree of autonomy, enabling them to create educational environments that align with their children’s natural learning styles and emotional needs. Rather than adhering to externally imposed schedules, homeschoolers can set their own pace, allowing for a more responsive and humane approach to education.
An important but often overlooked advantage of this flexibility is the ability to ensure children receive sufficient rest. Adequate sleep has been shown to significantly enhance learning capacity, physical health, emotional regulation, and overall mood, all of which contribute to improved academic and personal outcomes. Flexibility also benefits parents, providing them with greater time and energy to engage deeply in meaningful aspects of parenting, from shared activities to emotional support. Ultimately, the adaptable nature of homeschooling not only supports the academic flourishing of children but also strengthens family relationships and promotes a healthier, more balanced way of life.
Career & Public Figures
Another motive for homeschooling is the pursuit of professional career opportunities, either for the parents or the children. In the case of parents, homeschooling often offers a solution to the challenges posed by frequent relocations required by certain professions. When families move often, children would otherwise have to repeatedly adjust to new schools, teachers, peers, and environments, potentially disrupting their academic and social development. Homeschooling provides greater stability and continuity, minimizing these disruptions. Particularly among public figures, parents frequently opt for homeschooling as a means of shielding their children from the public scrutiny associated with their careers, thereby safeguarding their privacy (Chan, 2018). However, career demands alone do not fully explain the decision; many of these families are also strong advocates of homeschooling philosophy, indicating an interplay of practical and ideological motivations. Well-known individuals who chose to homeschool their children include Michael Jackson, Angelina Jolie, Tom Cruise, Will Smith, John Travolta, and Elon Musk (Longman, 2018; Helton, 2023).
Homeschooling is also pursued to support the child’s own professional ambitions. Many prominent figures were homeschooled during their formative years to allow greater flexibility for specialized training or artistic development. In politics, figures such as Theodore Roosevelt and George Washington were homeschooled. In the entertainment industry, Taylor Swift, Beyoncé, and Selena Gomez are notable examples. Athletes like Venus and Serena Williams, Simone Biles, and Michelle Kwan leveraged homeschooling to accommodate rigorous training schedules. Simone Biles, for instance, explained that her intensive daily gymnastics training made regular school attendance impractical, and homeschooling enabled her to focus fully on advancing to the elite level (GHC, n.d.). Renowned authors such as J.R.R. Tolkien, Jane Austen, Agatha Christie, and Charles Dickens also benefited from home education, as did inventors like Thomas Edison and Alexander Graham Bell, and intellectuals such as Albert Einstein and Mozart (Garcia, 2022). These examples illustrate how homeschooling can create opportunities for children to pursue excellence in their chosen fields by providing the necessary time, flexibility, and support.
Military
Despite the increasing visibility of homeschooling among military families, this area remains notably under-researched. While small-scale quantitative studies and doctoral theses have highlighted its growing relevance, few comprehensive academic investigations have explored the unique motives and experiences of military homeschoolers. As such, this section draws on the limited but insightful literature available to shed light on the distinctive challenges and considerations faced by military households that choose to homeschool.
Military families in the United States face repeated relocations, overseas deployments, and an inherently unpredictable lifestyle, all of which impose distinct pressures on family stability, educational continuity, and social development (Watters, 2015; Drummet et al., 2003; Palmer, 2008). These challenges often motivate parents to consider homeschooling as a strategy for maintaining consistency and exercising greater control over their children’s educational and emotional environments.
These frequent moves introduce a range of difficulties, including restricted educational options, language barriers, the potential loss of academic credits, and obstacles to social and emotional adjustment (Watters, 2015; Pratt, 2023; Silva, 2004). Older children, in particular, may struggle to maintain enduring friendships and cope with the cumulative effects of repeated separations. Homeschooling offers families a means of sustaining educational progression and providing a supportive, personalized environment that mitigates the destabilizing impact of frequent relocations.
Flexibility further reinforces the appeal of homeschooling. Unlike traditional schooling, which often binds families to a single location for the academic year, homeschooling allows military families to travel freely, visit extended family, and adjust educational schedules around deployments (Silva, 2004; Drummet et al., 2003). It enables families to maximize time together during reunions, preserve emotional bonds, and facilitate smoother transitions between periods of separation and reintegration. Nonetheless, the emotional adjustments associated with reunions after deployment can remain complex and require considerable family resilience.
Although mobility is a central factor, military families share many of the same motivations as civilian homeschoolers, including the desire to instill religious values, strengthen family cohesion, and deliver individualized education (Watters, 2015; Silva, 2004). Pratt’s (2023) study found that three out of nine military families opted for homeschooling, underscoring its growing resonance within this community. However, focused academic research on the phenomenon of military homeschooling remains limited, suggesting a promising direction for future inquiry.
Negative School Environment
Homeschooling has increasingly become a preferred choice for parents concerned about various risks associated with traditional school environments. Primary concerns include bullying, violence, and substance abuse. One of the most pervasive issues is bullying, which strongly motivates parents to withdraw their children from conventional schools (Kunzmann & Gaither, 2020). According to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, one in five students report experiencing bullying, highlighting the severity of the problem (NCES, n.d.-a). Among younger students aged 9 to 12, the figure rises dramatically, with 49.8 percent reporting incidents of bullying at school.
The situation is even more critical for minority groups. Within the LGBTQ+ student community, 71 percent report being bullied, and approximately one-third have attempted suicide as a result of the harassment they endure (NCES, n.d.-a). Students with disabilities are also at significantly higher risk, with one in five reporting bullying experiences. These alarming statistics underscore the persistent and widespread nature of bullying in public schools, reinforcing parents’ motivations to seek homeschooling as a means to safeguard their children’s well-being and, in some cases, their lives.
Beyond bullying, violence and crime within school settings represent further causes for parental concern. During the 2019–2020 academic year, 77 percent of public schools recorded at least one crime incident, totaling 1.4 million incidents nationwide (NCES, n.d.-a). This equates to 29 incidents per 1,000 enrolled students. Notably, students aged 12 to 18 expressed greater fear of attack or harm at school than outside of it, indicating that schools are often perceived as unsafe environments. This disturbing reality extends the scope of concern beyond bullying to include physical violence, criminal behavior, and serious federal offenses.
The prevalence of school shootings further amplifies these fears. Since 1999, over 356,000 students have been exposed to gun violence at school (Ulmanu, 2023). In 2022 alone, 46 school shootings were reported, marking the highest annual figure since 1999. The consequences of these events extend far beyond physical injuries, resulting in profound psychological trauma among student survivors. Given these dangers, it is understandable that an increasing number of parents are choosing homeschooling as a safer educational alternative.
Substance abuse within schools presents yet another serious concern. Between 2016 and 2020, 62 percent of 12th graders admitted to alcohol use (Bustamante, 2023). Half of all teenagers reported having abused drugs at least once, and drug use among 8th graders increased by 61 percent during the same period. Marijuana usage is notably high, with 6.9 percent of 12th graders admitting daily consumption and 43.7 percent having tried it at some point. Opioid abuse has reached a critical level, with overdose deaths among 15- to 24-year-olds increasing by 500 percent since 1999. Moreover, amphetamine use among 8th graders rose by 56.1 percent between 2017 and 2020. Recent surges in fentanyl-related overdoses have further intensified concerns: adolescent overdose deaths more than doubled between 2010 and 2021, and in 2021, fentanyl was implicated in over 77 percent of these fatalities (Holcombe, 2022). These alarming trends reinforce parents’ fears and further motivate the decision to homeschool.
As emphasized in prior research, a central goal behind homeschooling is the creation of a safer, more nurturing educational environment (Ray, 2011). The escalating rates of bullying, violence, and substance abuse demonstrate a profound need for alternative educational pathways. By choosing homeschooling, parents seek not only to mitigate these risks but also to exercise greater oversight over their children’s development and safety, reflecting a proactive commitment to their children’s overall well-being.
Race
The decision to homeschool motivated by racial concerns reflects a range of experiences, challenges, and aspirations distinct from those of other homeschooling families. Parents’ or children’s experiences of racial discrimination, inequity, prejudice, and systemic racism are major reasons for choosing homeschooling (Mazama & Lundy, 2014; Ray, 2015; Williams-Johnson & Fields-Smith, 2022). At the core of this decision lies the issue of racism encountered within school environments, particularly by children of color. Experiences of racial discrimination, hostility, oppression, and lowered expectations can lead to significant psychological and emotional harm.
As a proactive measure, many parents increasingly turn to homeschooling to protect their children from the negative impacts of racism. This highlights the urgency of providing an educational environment that prioritizes emotional safety and affirms diverse identities. The decision-making process for African American parents often differs from that of their Euro-American counterparts, reflecting challenges uniquely tied to race (McDowell et al., 2000). Racism occupies a central role as a motivating factor, underscoring the importance of understanding the distinct experiences of African American students. For many parents, homeschooling is a way to help children cope with or preempt exposure to racism (Mazama & Lundy, 2012).
Several specific issues have been identified regarding racism in schools. These include teachers’ attitudes toward Black students, disproportionate placement in special education, harsher disciplinary actions, and the omission of Black history from curricula. Concerning teachers’ attitudes, “white teachers often consciously or unconsciously mark whiteness as colorless and the inevitable norm” (Solomon et al., 2005, as cited in Mazama & Lundy, 2012, p. 726). Such biases can negatively affect Black students’ educational experiences (Mazama & Lundy, 2012). Moreover, 85 percent of U.S. teachers identifying as White contributes to the problem (NCES, 2005).
Disproportionality within special education also reflects systemic racial disparities. African American students are more than twice as likely as European American students to be labeled as “mentally retarded” (Mazama & Lundy, 2012, p. 737). Similarly, Black students face disproportionate disciplinary actions: “Black male students are today over three times more likely than White students to be suspended” (Losen & Skibba, 2010, as cited in Mazama & Lundy, 2012, p. 727). Such inequities often have long-term consequences, severely impacting students’ educational and life trajectories (Sum et al., 2009, as cited in Mazama & Lundy, 2012).
Beyond immediate concerns about discrimination, Black parents’ homeschooling decisions are also heavily influenced by the desire to provide a more inclusive education. Many parents are concerned that traditional school curricula favor Eurocentric narratives, portraying Europe as the sole origin of great ideas and achievements (Asante, 2007; Hilliard, 1997, as cited in Mazama & Lundy, 2012). Mazama and Lundy (2012) refer to this exclusion as a “quasiexclusion of Africa and African-descended people from the curriculum” (p. 726), drawing from the concept of the “null curriculum” (Eisner, 1994, as cited in Mazama & Lundy, 2012, p. 726). Parents worry that this erasure can lead to poor self-esteem and diminished self-confidence among Black students. Homeschooling enables parents to nurture pride in their children’s ethnic heritage, fostering a positive sense of identity.
It is important to note, however, that not all Black homeschooling parents prioritize race equally. Mazama and Lundy (2014) distinguish between Black fundamentalist Christians and the general Black Christian population. While both groups share religious beliefs, their educational priorities differ. African American fundamentalists are more likely to homeschool for religious reasons rather than race-related concerns. For instance, some parents emphasize that their heritage is secondary to their identity in Christ. Ray (2015) similarly found that the top three reasons among Black families for homeschooling were religious or moral instruction, values and beliefs, and academic reasons. Conversely, members of the broader Black Christian community often place significant importance on teaching their children about their African American identity, affirming, “We are of African American descent, and we find that to be extremely important. That’s how God created us. Let’s learn about who we are first, and take pride in who we are” (Mazama & Lundy, 2014, p. 266).
Thus, although race-related factors are uniquely salient among many parents of color, they are not universal nor singular motives. Furthermore, significant overlap exists between the motivations of Black homeschooling families and those of other homeschooling families (Mazama & Lundy, 2014).
Gifted Education
Parents of gifted children often choose homeschooling to ensure that their children’s unique talents and needs receive the necessary attention and support (Jolly & Matthews, 2017). Homeschooling offers an educational environment finely tailored to the child’s exceptional strengths and skills, which many traditional schools struggle to accommodate. Dissatisfaction and frustration with the inability of schools to meet the needs of gifted learners are common motivations. Despite awareness that gifted students require specialized support, teachers are often preoccupied with assisting struggling students, leaving the needs of gifted learners unmet (Jolly & Matthews, 2017). Two major issues are repeatedly cited: the schools’ inability or unwillingness to offer accelerated curricula, and the prioritization of underperforming students over gifted ones.
In addition to limited support, public schools often fail in the early identification of gifted children. Significant disparities exist in gifted identification rates among children of color, particularly Black, Latino, and Indigenous students, as well as students from high-poverty backgrounds, who frequently go undetected (Gentry, 2020). Available statistics reveal that most schools receive unsatisfactory evaluations regarding their identification and support of gifted and talented students (Gentry, 2020). These persistent gaps highlight systemic challenges in recognizing and nurturing giftedness within traditional education systems.
It is also important to note that homeschooling families of gifted children differ considerably from the general homeschooling population. Their decision to homeschool often stems from distinct educational needs rather than the broader ideological, religious, or cultural reasons more commonly cited among traditional homeschooling families (Jolly & Matthews, 2018).
Disability and Specific Needs
An increasing number of parents, particularly those of children with disabilities or additional learning needs, are choosing to homeschool (Bjopal & Myers, 2018; Cook et al., 2013; Neuman, 2020). Homeschooling enables parents to offer specialized support tailored to their children’s individual needs, including physical disabilities, mental health challenges, behavioral or learning disorders, language impairments, and chronic medical conditions. This decision allows families to create nurturing environments that foster optimal treatment, education, and overall care. Among the most common conditions cited are specific learning disabilities and speech or language impairments (The Advocacy Institute, n.d.).
Many parents express dissatisfaction with the limited support available within public school settings. Parental dissatisfaction with schools’ inability to meet their children’s specialized learning needs is consistently identified as the leading reason for choosing homeschooling (Morse & Bell, 2018, as cited in Forlin et al., 2023). Approximately half of the students with special needs have been withdrawn from school because their parents felt that those needs were not adequately addressed.
Additionally, concerns regarding bullying play a significant role. Studies consistently show that children with disabilities face a substantially higher risk of bullying compared to their nondisabled peers (Blake et al., 2012). According to Tirraoro (2021), more than one in three students with disabilities report having experienced bullying within traditional school environments. As a consequence, high school dropout rates for students with disabilities are double those of their nondisabled counterparts (NCES, 2021, as cited in Bouchrika, 2025).
As the number of students with disabilities continues to grow, there is an increasingly urgent need for educational systems to adapt and intervene. By opting for homeschooling, parents seek to overcome the limitations of traditional education systems, providing environments that prioritize their children’s unique needs, safety, and potential.
Financial constraints
Despite its potential relevance, the role of financial constraints in homeschooling decisions remains underexplored in academic literature. While demographic surveys often collect data on household income levels among homeschooling families, monetary considerations are rarely emphasized in homeschooling research and seldom cited as a primary motive, they occasionally emerge as a contributing factor in parental decision-making (Collom & Mitchell, 2005; Martin & Meuse, 2011, as cited in Abuzandah, 2021). According to Smetak (2019), monetary reasons represent only a minor influence compared to other, more significant considerations. Some parents would prefer to enroll their children in private schools but find the high tuition cost prohibitive. Annual tuition at private schools can reach $27,700, and at boarding schools, as much as $70,000 (Hanson, 2024), making homeschooling a more financially feasible alternative for some families.
Although financial motives play a role, this decision is somewhat paradoxical, as homeschooling typically necessitates one parent withdrawing from the workforce, thereby reducing household income. Furthermore, in the United States, homeschooling families do not receive financial aid or government support, unlike in countries such as Taiwan, where families can receive up to $2,400 annually per homeschooled student at the senior secondary level (HSLDA, 2021). Nevertheless, for some families, living on a single income while homeschooling may still prove more affordable than covering the costs of private education.
Pandemic
Although studied in isolation, this motive has not yet been incorporated into comprehensive homeschooling reviews, such as Kunzman and Gaither (2020), largely because of its novelty and the fact that no comparable global disruption has previously influenced homeschooling on this scale. In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, a large number of families transitioned to homeschooling as schools across the United States closed for in-person learning and shifted to remote instruction under emergency lockdowns. Importantly, this was not a voluntary decision on the part of most parents. As a result, debates emerged regarding whether those temporarily educating their children at home could be classified as “authentic” or “real” homeschoolers. Many longstanding homeschooling families expressed concerns that the influx of pandemic homeschoolers could alter the values and principles of established communities, leading to a clear distinction between “pre-coronavirus” homeschoolers (long-term, voluntary) and pandemic-induced homeschoolers (Dennis & Fields-Smith, 2020).
The sudden closure of traditional educational institutions caught both educators and parents unprepared, with little support provided for the transition to home-based online learning (Fontenelle-Tereshchuk, 2021). Dissatisfaction with the quality of remote education quickly grew among teachers, parents, and students, resulting in declines in academic performance. In response, many parents who initially engaged in homeschooling involuntarily discovered they were capable of successfully educating their children at home, prompting some to reevaluate traditional schooling options.
The pandemic also triggered a dramatic surge in academic research and public discourse surrounding homeschooling (Albrecht et al., 2022; Fontenelle-Tereshchuk, 2021; Parczewska, 2021; Petts et al., 2021). Researchers explored various dimensions of this phenomenon, including educational challenges, perceived benefits, and the mental and physical impacts of home-based learning. The global shift to mandated home learning thrust homeschooling into the public spotlight, generating newfound awareness and scholarly attention.
Initially, it was uncertain whether pandemic-induced homeschoolers would continue beyond the crisis. However, as homeschooling rates remain elevated even after the reopening of schools, it is evident that a segment of parents, having witnessed the benefits firsthand, have chosen to persist (Hernholm, 2024). Interest in homeschooling has been particularly strong among families of color: polls indicate that 50% of Black families, 38% of Latino families, and 36% of White families expressed interest in continuing homeschooling (Dennis & Fields-Smith, 2020). For these families, homeschooling has become a way not only to protect children from health risks but also to shield them from a variety of other influences perceived as negative. What began as a response to an international emergency has, for many, evolved into a lasting educational choice.
(English) Language Learning
An increasingly prominent yet underexplored motivation for homeschooling among families in East Asia is the desire to provide high-quality language education, primarily English, but not limited to. In several countries, parents are turning to homeschooling as a means of ensuring their children gain fluency in English, often with the long-term goal of preparing them for higher education abroad.
In China, many middle-class parents homeschool their children in English to bypass the rigid, test-focused national curriculum and to prepare them for entry into overseas universities (Sheng, 2019). This form of homeschooling reflects a globalized outlook, in which English is viewed as a key to accessing international academic and career opportunities. The phenomenon is especially prevalent among returnee families—those who have lived abroad and whose children struggle to readapt to China’s “gaokao culture” and test-heavy environment (Liu, 2017; Kunzman & Gaither, 2020). By choosing English as the main medium of instruction at home, these families seek to maintain bilingual proficiency or regain the fluency lost upon returning to China.
In South Korea, similar patterns emerge. Many parents see English not only as an academic subject but as a strategic tool for global competitiveness. Some families center their entire homeschooling curriculum around English acquisition, believing it will increase their children’s chances of studying at respected international universities or succeeding in global careers (Jung, 2018). Although homeschooling is often associated with a more relaxed, holistic approach, many Korean parents who homeschool for English purposes retain high academic expectations and often teach the language themselves, reflecting both their own linguistic capital and commitment to educational excellence.
In Taiwan, the desire to homeschool in English is often linked to aspirations for international education. Parents dissatisfied with mainstream instruction incorporate English into their home curricula to ensure more effective language development. This often includes combining English with Chinese and Western classical literature, signaling a culturally rich and globally minded educational vision.
Although still less common in Japan, early indicators suggest that English learning is becoming a notable motive among homeschooling families. According to a poll conducted by the author in a Japanese homeschooling community, English learning was among the most frequently cited reasons for choosing to homeschool. This is especially evident among expatriate families and those aiming for overseas university entrance. Given Japan’s heavy reliance on grammar-translation methods (yakudoku) and limited opportunities for communicative practice in public schools, some parents opt to homeschool specifically to create a more immersive and functional English learning environment.
Overall, across these Asian contexts, English language learning as a motive for homeschooling reflects both reactive and proactive dimensions. On the reactive side, parents express dissatisfaction with the low quality of English education in mainstream schools, including rigid curricula, limited communicative practice, and outdated instructional methods. On the proactive side, many parents feel confident that they can provide better English instruction themselves and intentionally design internationalized curricula aligned with their long-term goals, such as bilingualism, intercultural competence, or overseas university admission. As such, the growing appeal of homeschooling across Asia is increasingly driven by language education, with a strong focus on English, though not limited to it. Interestingly, this specific motive is largely absent in existing Western homeschooling research and appears to be a distinctive feature of the Asian educational context.
Implications
The findings of this review carry important implications for education policy, social understanding, and future reform efforts. First, they highlight the urgent need for policymakers and educators to recognize and address the underlying factors that drive families to choose homeschooling, particularly the concerns about educational quality, safety, and the alignment of school values with family beliefs. Efforts to reform traditional schooling should aim to create more flexible, responsive, and individualized learning environments that can better meet the diverse needs of students. Second, a greater societal awareness of the wide-ranging motives behind homeschooling is essential to challenge persistent stereotypes and promote a more nuanced and inclusive public discourse around alternative education. Finally, insights drawn from the homeschooling motives, including its emphasis on flexibility, family involvement, and tailored instruction, offer valuable lessons that could inform efforts to strengthen the traditional education system, ensuring that it evolves to support the well-being and success of all learners.
Limitations
Several limitations should be noted. First, this study relies exclusively on a narrative literature review methodology, without original empirical research, limiting direct insights from homeschooling families. Second, most existing studies involve voluntary participation, introducing a self-selection bias that may affect representativeness. Third, the review was limited to English-language academic sources, which may restrict the inclusion of diverse perspectives, including those found in non-English or unpublished research. Finally, the selection and interpretation of literature inevitably involve some degree of subjectivity. These limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings and implications presented.
Identified Gaps and Future Research
A notable gap in existing research is the predominant focus on parental motives at the parental level, often assuming homogeneity across all children. This perspective neglects the possibility that homeschooling decisions may reflect distinct motivations tailored to the individual needs, preferences, or circumstances of each child. Future research should investigate parental motives on a per-child basis to provide a more differentiated and nuanced understanding of homeschooling practices, thereby recognizing the individuality of children within homeschooling families.
Conclusion
This comprehensive literature review of socio-cultural motivations for homeschooling in the United States reveals the diversity and complexity behind parents’ decisions to pursue alternative education. Motivations include religious beliefs, moral and value formation, rejection of conflicting beliefs, such as LGBTQ+, sex education, and critical race theory, family emphasis, educational dissatisfaction, concerns about school environments, race-related experiences, flexibility, career demands, privacy of public figures, military context, giftedness, disabilities, financial considerations, exceptional circumstances such as the COVID-19 pandemic, and English language learning. Many of these factors are overlapping and intertwined, reflecting the nuanced realities of homeschooling families. The findings underscore persistent shortcomings in the traditional education system and highlight the need for more flexible, responsive approaches. As homeschooling continues to grow and diversify, further research will be critical to understanding its evolving dynamics.
References
Abuzandah, S. A. (2021). Reasons for choosing homeschooling and approaches most used: A qualitative content analysis [Doctoral dissertation, Kansas State University]. ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
Albrecht, J. N., Werner, H., Rieger, N., Widmer, N., Janisch, D., Huber, R., & Jenni, O. G. (2022). Association between homeschooling and adolescent sleep duration and health during COVID-19 pandemic high school closures. JAMA network open, 5(1), e2142100-e2142100.
Ammerman, N. T. (1991). North American Protestant fundamentalism. In M. E. Marty & R. S. Appleby (Eds.), Fundamentalisms Observed (pp. 165). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Apple, M. (2005). Away with all the teachers: The cultural politics of home schooling. In B. S. Cooper (Ed.), Homeschooling in full view: A reader (pp. 7595). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing.
Asante M. (2007). An Afrocentric manifesto. London, UK: Polity Press.
Bhopal, K., & Myers, M. (2018). Home schooling and home education: Race, class and inequality. Routledge.
Blake, J. J., Lund, E. M., Zhou, Q., Kwok, O. M., & Benz, M. R. (2012). National prevalence rates of bully victimization among students with disabilities in the United States. School psychology quarterly, 27(4), 210.
Bledsoe, E. (2024, January 18). How many US military bases are there in the world? The Soldiers Project. https://www.thesoldiersproject.org/how-many-us-military-bases-are-there-in-the-world/
Bouchrika, I. (2025, February 17). High School Dropout Rate Is Decreasing but Race, Income & Disability Issues Persist for 2025. Research.com. https://research.com/education/high-school-dropout-rate
Bustamante, J. (2023, January 1). Teenage Drug Use Statistics [2023]: Data & Trends on abuse. NCDAS. https://drugabusestatistics.org/teen-drug-use/
Chan, A. R. (2018, September 13). 19 celeb kids that had to be homeschooled. TheRichest. https://www.therichest.com/pop-culture/19-celeb-kids-that-had-to-be-homeschooled/
Cizek, G. J. (1994). Religious education in home schools: Goals/outcomes mismatch? Religious Education, 89(1), 4351.
Collom, E. (2005). The Ins and Outs of Homeschooling: The Determinants of Parental Motivations and Student Achievement. Education and Urban Society, 37(3), 307–335. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124504274190
Cook, K. B., Bennett, K. E., Lane, J. D., & Mataras, T. K. (2013). Beyond the brick walls: Homeschooling students with special needs. Research, Advocacy, and Practice for Complex and Chronic Conditions, 32(2), 98-111.
Dennis, A. L., & Fields-Smith, C. (2020). Contemporary homeschooling: Black children’s best interests, freedom from religion, and anti-racism. https://digitalcommons.law.uga.edu/fac_artchop/1404
Drummet, A. R., Coleman, M., & Cable, S. (2003). Military families under stress: Implications for family life education. Family relations, 52(3), 279-287. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3729.2003.00279.x
Eisner, E. W. (1994). The Educational Imagination: on the design and evaluation of school programs. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA10583871
Ellis, N. T. (2021, July). Critical race theory has become a social and political lightning rod. This is how we got here. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2021/07/14/us/critical-race-theory-what-is-it/index.html
Fontenelle-Tereshchuk, D. (2021). ‘Homeschooling’and the COVID-19 crisis: the insights of parents on curriculum and remote learning. Interchange, 52(2), 167-191.
Forlin, C., & Chambers, D. (2023). Is a Whole School Approach to Inclusion Really Meeting the Needs of All Learners? Home-Schooling Parents’ Perceptions. Education Sciences, 13(6), 571.
Gaither, M. (2008). Homeschool: An American history. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
García, J. (2022, August 24). 10 Famous people who were homeschooled. Homeschool Spanish Academy. https://www.spanish.academy/blog/10-famous-people-who-were-homeschooled/
Gentry, M. (2020). Black, Latino and Native Students Underserved in Mississippi’s Gifted and Talented Programs. Mississippi Free Press. https://www.mississippifreepress.org/6198/black-latino-and-native-american-underserved-in-mississippi-gifted-and-talented-programs
GHC. (nd.). Former Homeschooler, Olympic Medalist, Simone Biles. Great Homeschool Conventions. https://greathomeschoolconventions.com/blog/olympic-medalist-simone-biles
Green-Hennessy, S. (2014). Homeschooled adolescents in the United States: Developmental outcomes. Journal of Adolescence, 37(4), 441–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.03.007Guterma
Green-Hennessy, S., & Mariotti, E. C. (2023). The decision to homeschool: Potential factors influencing reactive homeschooling practice. Educational Review, 75(4), 617-636.
Green, C. L., & Hoover-Dempsey, K. V. (2007). Why do parents homeschool? A systematic examination of parental involvement. Education and Urban Society, 39(2), 264-285.
Hanna, L. G. (2012). Homeschooling education: Longitudinal study of methods, materials, and curricula. Education and Urban Society, 44(5), 609–631. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013124511404886
Hanson, M. (2024, August 29). Average Cost of private School [2024]: Tuition by education level. Education Data Initiative. https://educationdata.org/average-cost-of-private-school
Harvard College. (n.d.). Application requirements. https://college.harvard.edu/admissions/apply/application-requirements#:~:text=What%20if%20I%20am%20homeschooled,and%20personal%20background%20is%20welcome.
Helton, L. (2023, July 30). Elon Musk’s secret to raising genius kids: Unconventional homeschooling! https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/elon-musks-secret-raising-genius-kids-unconventional-dr-lisa-helton/
Hernholm, S. (2024, April 30). Rise of homeschooling is making a transformative impact on education. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/sarahhernholm/2024/04/30/rise-of-homeschooling-and-its-transformative-impact-on-education/
Heuer, W., & Donovan, W. (2017). Homeschooling: The ultimate school choice (White paper No. 170 Pioneer Institute: Public Policy Research). ERIC database. (ED588847).
Hilliard A. III. (1997). Teacher education from an African American perspective. In Irvine J. J. (Ed.), Critical knowledge for diverse teachers and learners (pp. 125-148). Washington, DC: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.
Hodge, D. R., Salas-Wright, C. P., & Vaughn, M. G. (2017). Behavioral risk profiles of homeschooled adolescents in the United States: A nationally representative examination of substance use related outcomes. Substance Use & Misuse, 52(3), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1080/10826084.2016.1225094
Holcombe, M. (2022, April 12). Teen overdose deaths are rapidly rising – but not because more of them are using drugs. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2022/04/12/health/teen-overdose-deaths-wellness/index.html
NHERI. (2016, June 27) Homeschool SAT scores for 2014 higher than national average. National Home Education Research Institute. https://iahe.net/homeschool-sat-scores-2014-higher-national-average/
Hyman, H. (1987). Secondary analysis of sample surveys: Principles, procedures and potentialities. New York, NY: Wesleyan Press.
HSLDA. (n.d.). Military families. https://hslda.org/explore/military-families
HSLDA. (2021, March 22). Homeschooling in Taiwan: A 2020 recap. https://hslda.org/post/homeschooling-in-taiwan-a-2020-recap
Isenberg, E. (2007) What Have We Learned About Homeschooling?, Peabody Journal of Education, 82:2-3, 387-409, DOI: 10.1080/01619560701312996
Jolly, J.L. & Matthews, M.S. (2018) The Chronicles of Homeschooling Gifted Learners, Journal of School Choice, 12:1, 123-145, DOI: 10.1080/15582159.2017.1354644
Jolly, J. L., & Matthew, M. S. (2020). The shifting landscape of the homeschooling continuum. Educational Review, 72(3), 269–280. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2018.1552661
Jones, A. & Ellis, N. T. (2023, March). ‘A form of resistance’: More Black families are choosing to homeschool their children. CNN. https://edition.cnn.com/2023/03/01/us/black-families-home-school-reaj/index.html
Kunzman, R. (2009). Write these laws on your children: Inside the world of conservative Christian homeschooling. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
Kunzman, R. (2010). Homeschooling and religious fundamentalism. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 3(1), 17-28.
Kunzman, R., & Gaither, M. (2020). Homeschooling: An updated comprehensive survey of the research. Other Education-the journal of educational alternatives, 9(1), 253-336.
Lois, J. (2013). Home is where the school is: The logic of homeschooling and the emotional labor of mothers. New York University Press.
Long, D. E. (2011). Evolution education from campus to home. In D. E. Long (Ed.), Evolution and religion in American education (Vol. 4, pp. 115–147). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1808-1_7
Longman, H. (2018). Parenting, baby names, celebrities, and royal news | CafeMom.com. https://cafemom.com/entertainment/215892-celebrities-who-homeschool-their-kids/262817-michael_jackson
Mayberry, M. (1989). Home‐based Education in the United States: Demographics, motivations and educational implications. Educational Review, 41(2), 171–180. https://doi.org/10.1080/0013191890410208
Mayberry, M., & Knowles, J. G. (1989). Family unity objectives of parents who teach their children: Ideological and pedagogical orientations to home schooling. The Urban Review, 21(4), 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01112403
Mazama, A., & Lundy, G. (2014). African American homeschoolers: The force of faith and the reality of race in the homeschooling experience. Religion & Education, 41(3), 256-272.
McDannell, C. (1995). Home schooling in contemporary America. In D. Chidester & E. T. Linenthal (Eds.), American sacred space (pp. 187-219). Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
McDowell, S. A., Sanchez, A. R., & Jones, S. S. (2000). Participation and perception: Looking at home schooling through a multicultural lens. Peabody Journal of Education, 75(1-2), 124-146. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/0161956X.2000.9681938?casa_token=2-rdC1-GCvwAAAAA:xMou7VmuCMTyplQdOtaj9jbKqBt9BiL3PM_DO_5nDSnZPE0MQjOu8XTg_kDFy-MWms_Zq9DqLbTprOA
McQuiggan, M., & Megra, M. (2017). Parent and Family Involvement in Education: Results from the National Household Education Surveys Program of 2016. First Look. NCES 2017-102. National Center for Education Statistics. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED575972.pdf
MIT Admissions. (n.d.). How do homeschooled students apply? | MIT Admissions. https://mitadmissions.org/help/faq/homeschool/#:~:text=MIT%20has%20a%20long%20history,separate%20requirements%20for%20homeschooled%20applicants.
Moline, M. (2023, May 26). DeSantis praises homeschoolers, gets in a dig at Donald Trump during speech. Florida Phoenix. https://floridaphoenix.com/2023/05/26/desantis-praises-homeschoolers-gets-in-a-dig-at-donald-trump-during-speech/
NCES. (2005). Profile of the teachers. Washington, DC: Author
NCES. (n.d.-a). Fast Facts: School crime (49). https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=49#:~:text=Violence%20and%20Crime%20at%20School,students%20enrolled%20in%202019%E2%80%9320.
NCES. (n.d.-b). Number and percentage of homeschooled students ages 5 through 17 with a grade equivalent of kindergarten through 12th grade, by selected child, parent, and household characteristics: Selected years, 1999 through 2019.
NCES. (n.d.-c). Percentage and percentage distribution of homeschooled students ages 5 through 17 with a grade equivalent of kindergarten through grade 12, by reasons their parents gave for homeschooling, the one reason their parents identified as most important, and race/ethnicity of child: 2019. https://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d21/tables/dt21_206.15.asp?current=yes
Neuman, A. (2020). Ask the young: What homeschooled adolescents think about homeschooling. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 34(4), 566-582.
Ocampo, S. (2023, December 18). How often does the average American move? moveBuddha. https://www.movebuddha.com/blog/how-often-americans-move/#:~:text=Research%20shows%20that%20Americans%20move%20at%20least%20once%20every%20five%20years.
O’Dell, H. (n.d.). Where in the world are US military deployed? https://globalaffairs.org/bluemarble/us-sending-more-troops-middle-east-where-world-are-us-military-deployed#:~:text=These%20three%20countries%20also%20have,is%20published%20by%20the%20Pentagon.%E2%80%9D
Palmer, C. (2008). A theory of risk and resilience factors in military families. Military Psychology, 20(3), 205-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995600802118858
Parczewska, T. (2021). Difficult situations and ways of coping with them in the experiences of parents homeschooling their children during the COVID-19 pandemic in Poland. Education 3-13, 49(7), 889-900.
Parson, S., & Lewis, A. (2010). The home-education of children with special needs or disabilities in theUK: Views of parents from an online survey. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 14(1),67–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110802504135
Petts, R. J., Carlson, D. L., & Pepin, J. R. (2021). A gendered pandemic: Childcare, homeschooling, and parents’ employment during COVID‐19. Gender, Work & Organization, 28, 515-534.
Pratt, A. B. (2023). Military families and their school-based decisions [Doctoral dissertation, Central Michigan University]. https://scholarly.cmich.edu/?a=is&oid=CMUGR2023-024&type=staticpdf&e=——-en-10–1–txt-txIN%7CtxAU%7CtxTI——–
Ray, B. (2010). Academic achievement and demographic traits of homeschool students: A nationwide study. Academic Leadership: The Online Journal, 8(1), 7.
Ray, B. D. (2011). 2.04 million homeschool students in the United States in 2010. National Home Education Research Institute, 1-5.
Ray, B. D. (2015). African American homeschool parents’ motivations for homeschooling and their Black children’s academic achievement. Journal of School Choice, 9:71–96 [a peer-reviewed journal].
Ray, B. D. (2015). Research facts on homeschooling. ERIC Clearinghouse.
Ray, B. D. (2023, July 27). Research facts on homeschooling. National Home Education Research Institute. https://www.nheri.org/research-facts-on-homeschooling/
Rivero, L. (2008). The homeschooling option. Published by palgrave macmilla.
Rothermel, P. (2003). Can We Classify Motives for Home Education? Evaluation & Research in Education, 17(2–3), 74–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500790308668293
Saghir, A. (2011). An introduction to homeschooling for Muslim parents (Doctoral dissertation, California State University, Sacramento).
Sawchuk, S. (2022, April 20). What’s driving the push to restrict schools on LGBTQ issues? Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/leadership/whats-driving-the-push-to-restrict-schools-on-lgbtq-issues/2022/04
Shoemaker, T. (2021, September 15). Philosophy, research basis, and development of ABeka Educational Materials – ABEKA. Abeka. https://www.abeka.com/blog/philosophy-research-basis-and-development-of-abeka-educational-materials/#gref
Silva, M. S. (2004). Who are they? Military parents who homeschool their children: Recommendations for adult educators in the military community. Northern Illinois University.
Smetak, L. R. (2019). Reasons Families Choose To Homeschool: A Study Of Homeschooling Families In Minnesota. https://digitalcommons.hamline.edu/hse_all/4460/
Spiegler, T. (2008). Warum wählen Eltern Home Education? In Home Education in Deutschland: Hintergründe—Praxis—Entwicklung. Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
Stanford University. (n.d.). Guidelines for homeschooled applicants : Stanford University. https://admission.stanford.edu/apply/first-year/home_school.html
Stevens, M. L. 2001. Kingdom of Children: Culture and Controversy in the Homeschooling Movement. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
Sum A., Khatiwada I., McLaughin J. (2009). The consequences of dropping out of high school (Paper 23). Boston, MA: Center for Labor Market Studies.
Tan, M. H. (2020). Homeschooling in Singaporean Chinese families: Beyond pedagogues and ideologues. Educational Studies, 46(2), 135–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2019.1585850
The Advocacy Institute. (n.d.). New data: Number of IDEA eligible students ages 3–21 in 2020 shows little change from 2019. Number of infants and toddlers drops significantly. https://www.advocacyinstitute.org/blog/?p=1043
Thomas, J. (2016). Instructional motivations: What can we learn from homeschooling families?. The Qualitative Report, 21(11), 2073.
Thomas, J. (2019) Perspectives of Homeschoolers Motivated by Religious and Moral Reasons. Journal of Research on Christian Education, 28:1, 21-42. DOI: 10.1080/10656219.2019.1579125
Thorell, L. B., Skoglund, C., de la Peña, A. G., Baeyens, D., Fuermaier, A. B., Groom, M. J., … & Christiansen, H. (2021). Parental experiences of homeschooling during the COVID-19 pandemic: Differences between seven European countries and between children with and without mental health conditions. European child & adolescent psychiatry, 1-13.
Tirraoro, T. (2021). More than one in three disabled pupils experience bullying in mainstream school, plus other concerning SEND stats. Special Needs Jungle. https://www.specialneedsjungle.com/more-one-in-three-disabled-pupils-experience-bullying-mainstream-school-other-concerning-send-stats/
Cox, J. W., Rich, S., Trevor, L., Muyskens, J., & Ulmanu, M. (2023, April 3). There have been 386 school shootings since Columbine. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/education/interactive/school-shootings-database/
Valle, J. P. (1998). Their choice: How homeschooling makes sense to fundamentally Christian parents. (Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania State University, 1998). UMI Microform, UMI 9836783.
Van Galen, J. (1991). Ideologues and pedagogues: Parents who teach their children at home. In J. V. Galen & M. A. Pitman (Eds.), Homeschooling: Political, historical, and pedagogical perspectives (pp. 1-5). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Watters, G. G. (2015). The experiences of military parents homeschooling using online teaching resources [Doctoral dissertation, Walden University]. https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1528&context=dissertations
Williams-Johnson, M., & Fields-Smith, C. (2022). Homeschooling among Black families as a form of parental involvement: A focus on parental role construction, efficacy, and emotions. Educational Psychologist, 57(4), 252-266.
Winstanley, C. (2009). Too cool for school? Gifted children and homeschooling. Theory and Researchin Education, 7(3), 347–362. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878709343736
¯